•     • 


AMI 


THE  LIBRARY  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF 

NORTH  CAROLINA 


THE  COLLECTION  OF 

NORTH  CAROLINIANA 

FROM  THE  LIBRARY  OF 

Archibald  Henderson 


CB 
B72Uf9 


UNIVERSITY  OF  N.C.  AT  CHAPEL  HILL 


00032193643 

This  book  must  not 
be  taken  from  the 
Library  building. 


Form  No.   471 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 


MAKERS  AND  DEFENDERS 


OF 


AMERICA 


BY 
ANNA    ELIZABETH   FOOTE 

DEPARTMENT    OF    HISTORY,    TRAINING    SCHOOL    FOR    TEACHERS 
JAMAICA,     NEW    YORK 

AND 
AVERY  WARNER  SKINNER 

STATE    INSPECTOR    OF    SCHOOLS,    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 
ALBANY,    NEW    YORK 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1910,  by 
ANNA  ELIZABETH  FOOTE  and  AVERY  W.   SKINNER 


MAKERS    ANB    DEFENDERS    OF   AMERICA 
E-P     4 


PREFACE 

This  volume  is  the  second  of  a  series  of  two  books,  intended 
to  present  in  a  simple  manner  the  history  of  America  by  means 
of  the  biographies  of  the  men  who  found  and  made  it.  Each 
volume,  however,  is  entirely  independent,  so  that  the  books 
can  be  used  separately  where  desired.  The  first  book,  "Ex- 
plorers and  Founders  of  America,"  traced  our  history  from  its 
beginnings,  in  the  travels  of  Marco  Polo  and  the  voyages  of 
the  Northmen,  through  the  period  of  exploration  and  settlement 
to  the  end  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  It  told  the  stories 
of  the  Spanish  adventurers  who,  in  their  lust  for  gold,  conquered 
empires,  only  to  lose  them  again  through  misuse  of  power;  of 
the  hardy  French  voyageurs  who  sought  to  plant  the  cross  of 
Christ  and  the  lilies  of  France  in  a  New  World  and  who,  in  the 
fulfillment  of  their  purpose,  explored  the  great  river  systems  of 
the  middle  West;  of  the  sturdy  Dutch  farmers  who  laid  well 
the  foundations  of  the  Empire  State;  and  of  our  English  ances- 
tors who  found  broad  acres  and  fertile  fields  awaiting  them  in 
their  new  home  across  the  sea.  Some  of  them  were  men  of  action, 
brave  and  sometimes  cruel,  who  sought  fresh  fields  of  adventure; 
others  were  colony  builders,  who  strove  to  establish  settlements 
where  they  might  worship  God  untrammeled  by  the  faiths  of 
the  Old  World. 

The  second  volume  continues  the  series  of  historical  biog- 
raphies begun  in  "Explorers  and  Founders  of  America."  It 
commences,  where  that  book  ended,  with  the  close  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  treats  characters  typical  of  a  movement  or 
of  a  period  up  to  the  present  time.  It  traces  the  growth  of  our 
nation  through  the  lives  of  its  great  leaders,  men  of  thought, 

^whose  ideas  shaped  the  policies  and  established  the  present 

^  5 


O  PREFACE 

prosperity  of  our  country.  While  in  the  main  the  emphasis  is 
placed  on  the  personal  element,  some  narrative  of  events  has 
seemed  advisable.  In  this  way  a  continuous  story  is  made 
possible  without  losing  the  idea  of  personality  which  attracts 
the  youthful  mind.  The  sketches  include  not  only  the  lives  of 
great  statesmen  and  of  military  heroes,  but  also  biographies  of 
some  of  the  men  and  women  whose  philanthropy  has  made  our 
country  happier  or  whose  inventive  genius  has  advanced  its 
civilization  and,  with  it,  the  civilization  of  the  world.  It  is 
hoped  that  these  triumphs  of  peace  and  of  constructive  states- 
manship, as  well  as  the  stirring  days  and  brave  deeds  of  war,  will 
appeal  to  growing  boys  and  girls.  If  the  lives  of  these  men  and 
the  records  of  the  past  arouse  a  love  of  country,  teach  the  value 
of  courage  and  of  self-denial,  and  mold  character,  this  little 
book  will  justify  its  existence.  The  authors  desire  to  acknowl- 
edge the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Edison,  of  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie,  and  of  Admiral  George  B.  Dewey  in  revising  the 
sketches  relating  to  them.  We  are  also  under  obligation  to 
Miss  Clara  Barton  for  the  principal  facts  in  the  story  of  her  life. 

It  may  be  noted  that,  while  this  book  is  fitted  for  use  in  any 
grammar  grade,  it  conforms  fully  to  the  requirements  for  the 
sixth  grade  work  in  history  as  outlined  in  the  syllabus  for  ele- 
mentary schools,  issued  by  the  Education  Department  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  It  also  covers  the  sixth  grade  work  for  the 
schools  of  the  city  of  New  York. 

We  have  striven  to  create  the  historical  atmosphere.  We 
have  used  the  material  necessary  to  weave  a  story  concrete 
enough  for  children  to  share  the  experience  and  participate  in 
the  events  narrated.  Our  aim  has  been  to  make  the  characters 
real  to  the  child,  for  by  doing  so  we  shall  lay  a  foundation  and 
arouse  a  love  for  the  further  study  of  history. 

Anna  Elizabeth  Foote, 
Avery  Warner  Skinner. 


CONTENTS 


Navy 


Causes  of  the  Revolution    . 

Patrick  Henry 

Samuel  Adams 

War  Begins  —  Lexington  and  Concord 
Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 

George  Washington,  the  Young  Virginian 

George  Washington,  Soldier  and  Statesman 

Schuyler  and  Saratoga— 1777     . 

General  Nathanael  Green 

Nathan  Hale  —  The  Martyr  Spy 

John  Paul  Jones  —  Founder  of  the  American 

The  Critical  Period 

Thomas  Jefferson 

Alexander  Hamilton 

Daniel  Boone  and  Western  Settlements    . 

The  War  of  1812 

Naval  Heroes  of  the  War  of   181 2  — Oliver  Hazard 

Perry  and  Battle  of  Lake  Erie 
Macdonough  and  the  Battle  of  Lake  Champlain 
Lafayette  —  A  Loyal  Friend  to  the  United  States 
Andrew  Jackson  — War   Hero   and   President 
Henry  Clay,  the  Great  Peacemaker 
Daniel  Webster,  the  Defender  of  the  Constitution 

Inventions  and  Inventors 

Eli  Whitney  and  the   Cotton  Gin 

Elias  Howe 

7 


PAGE 
9 

20 
30 

34 
33 
5i 
74 
89 
98 

103 
in 
117 
129 
141 
149 


152 

156 

162 

168^ 

178 

191 

205 

205 

209 


8 


CONTENTS 


Commerce  and  Travel 

Robert  Fulton  and  the  Steamboat 
The  Erie  Canal  —  Clinton's  Great  Work 
George  Stephenson  and  the  Steam  Railway 

Abraham  Lincoln  

Grant,  The  Silent  Leader 

Robert  E.  Lee,  The  Captain  of  the  Boys  in  Gray 

Admiral  Farragut  and  the  Work  of  the  Navy 
Other  Naval  Exploits       .... 
Captain  Winslow  and  the  Alabama 
Lieutenant  Cushing  and  the  Albemarle 

Clara  Barton  and  the  Rld  Cross  Society 

The  Period  of  Transition  and  Development 
Cyrus  Hall  McCormick  and  the  Reaper 

Morse  and  the  Electric  Telegraph  . 

Edison  and  the  Electric  Light  . 

Admiral  Dewey  and  the  Spanish  War 

Andrew  Carnegie  —  the  Philanthropist    . 


The  Declaration  of  Independence 
Constitution  of  the  United  States 
Index  


P/>.GE 
213 
213 
219 
223 
230 

258 
274 
288 
2Q4 

295 
296 
298 
302 
305 
309 
317 
323 
330 

I 

5 
17 


MAKERS  AND  DEFENDERS  OF 
AMERICA 

CAUSES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 

We  sometimes  forget,  in  our  enjoyment  of  free  schools, 
free  churches,  and  a  free  press,  that  there  was  a  time  in  the 
history  of  our  country  when  personal  liberty  existed  only  in 
a  limited  degree.  Less  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago 
we  had  no  separate,  independent  government,  but  were  Brit- 
ish subjects.  There  was  no  United  States  and  no  President, 
but,  instead,  thirteen  separate  colonies  ruled  by  governors 
sent  over  by  George  III,  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  or  king 
of  England,  as  he  is  more  often  called.  As  most  of  the 
colonists  were  English,  either  by  birth  or  by  descent,  they 
were  loyal  to  the  mother  country  and  regarded  their  king 
with  affection  and  respect.  At  banquets  a  toast  was  always 
drunk  to  the  health  of  the  king,  statues  were  erected  in  his 
honor,  and  the  bands  played  "  God  save  the  King"  as  to-day 
they  play  "America,"  or  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner." 

How  the  colonists  gradually  lost  their  love  for  their  king, 
and  how  the  spirit  of  liberty  gradually  grew  among  them,  is 
an  interesting  and  sometimes  a  sad  story.  Let  us  consider 
some  of  the  causes  which  led  the  Americans  to  cast  off  their 
allegiance  to  England  and  to  establish  an  independent  nation. 
By  the  treaty  of  1763  which  closed  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  England  gained  from  France,  Canada  and  the  land 

9 


IO  JAMES  OTIS 

claimed  by  her  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  England  knew 
that  this  territory  must  be  protected  or  the  French  in  time 
would  reconquer  it.  Money  was  needed  for  the  10,000 
soldiers  that  were  sent  to  America  for  that  purpose.  Eng- 
land was  in  debt  and  this  debt  was  due  largely  to  the  war 
that  had  concerned  the  colonies.  She  reasoned,  also,  that 
the  presence  of  the  soldiers  would  be  a  protection  to  the 
colonists,  hence  they  should  contribute  to  the  support  of 
them. 

To  help  raise  the  money,  the  English  government,  then 
under  the  influence  of  King  George  and  the  ministers  he 
appointed,  revived  old  navigation  laws,  one  of  which,  called 
the  Sugar  and  Molasses  Act,  led  to  much  trouble.  This  law 
placed  a  tax  on  all  sugar  and  molasses  that  came  from  any 
place  but  the  British  West  Indies.  The  people  of  New  Eng- 
land had  long  carried  on  a  flourishing  trade  with  the  French 
West  Indies,  exchanging  almost  worthless  salt  fish  for  sugar 
and  molasses  which  they  distilled  into  rum.  This  rum  they 
took  to  the  African  coasts  and  exchanged  for  negroes  whom 
they  brought  back  and  sold  as  slaves  in  the  South.  As  the 
profits  from  this  traffic  would  be  greatly  reduced  by  the  tax, 
they  tried  to  evade  it  by  smuggling. 

The  English  officers  were  almost  powerless  to  enforce  the 
law.  Therefore  they  made  use  of  general  search  warrants 
called  Writs  of  Assistance.  These  writs  differed  from  the  reg- 
ular search  warrants  in  that  they  contained  neither  the  name 
of  the  informer  nor  the  description  of  the  property  to  be 
searched.  A  man  having  such  a  writ  could  search  any 
man's  property  at  any  time.  The  people  of  New  England 
bitterly  resented  this  practice.  James  Otis,  a  young  lawyer, 
then  holding  an  office  under  the  government,  resigned  his 
position  in  order  to  plead  the  cause  of  the  people.     He 


CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


II 


James  Otis 


declared  that  the  use  of  Writs  of  Assistance  was  an  act  of 

tyranny  similar   to   the  abuse  of  power  that  had  cost  one 

king  of  England  his  head  and  another  his  throne.    He  also 

claimed  that  such  writs  violated  the 

rights  that  Englishmen  had  enjoyed 

for    more    than   five   hundred   years. 

The  speeches  of  James  Otis  were  very 

bold,  and  are  considered  by  some  as 

being  the  first  step  of  the  American 
Revolution. 

Many  men  accused  of  smuggling 
were  tried  in  courts  without  a  jury. 
This  was  another  serious  grievance, 
for  the  colonists  claimed  that  as  Eng- 
lishmen they  should  not  be  punished 
except  by  the  judgment  of  their  equals. 

By  1765  the  English  Parliament 1  saw  that  the  trade  laws 
had  not  only  failed  to  bring  in  the  necessary  money,  but  had 
stirred  up  a  rebellious  spirit  among  the  colonists.  The 
Stamp  Act  was  then  passed  as  a  substitute.  This  act  pro- 
vided that  every  legal  document,  deed,  pamphlet,  almanac, 
or  newspaper  must  be  written  or  printed  on  stamped  paper. 
The  prices  of  the  stamps  varied  from  half  a  cent  to  fifty 

dollars. 

s  The  Stamp  Act  was  passed  in  March  and  was  to  go  into 
effect  the  first  of  November,  1765.  When  the  news  reached 
America,  the  disapproval  was  more  widespread  than  that 
caused  by  the  trade  laws.  Whereas  those  laws  had  affected 
principally  merchants  and  shippers  in  the  seaport  towns, 

1  Parliament  is  the  lawmaking  body  of  England,  as  Congress  is  of  the 
United  States.  It  consists  of  a  hereditary  House  of  Lords  and  a  House  of 
Commons  elected  by  the  people. 


12 


CAUSES    OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


the  Stamp  Act  would  affect  all  classes  of  business  men,  in- 
cluding those  in  the  interior  towns  and  cities.  Indeed,  every 
man  who  bought  a  newspaper  would  be  reminded  that  he 
was  taxed  by  a  government  outside  of  America.  James  Otis 
spoke  and  wrote  against  this  law  and  aroused  people  through- 
out New  England;  but  the  work  of  Patrick  Henry  of  Vir- 
ginia is  more  important. 


a®* 


8j* 


43 

Stamps  used  in  1765 


Penny) 

't 


PATRICK  HENRY 

Patrick  Henry  was  the  son  of  a  Scotch  lawyer,  and  was 
born  in  Virginia  in  1736.  As  a  boy  he  cared  little  for  study, 
and,  although  he  was  tutored  and  sent  to  school,  he  made 
little  progress.  He  loved  out-of-door  life.  He  took  long 
solitary  tramps  in  the  woods.  He  spent  many  summer  days 
fishing  and  became  a  boon  companion  of  the  trappers  in  his 
neighborhood.  All  of  this  freedom  had  its  influence  on  the 
growing  boy.  Through  it  he  gained  robust  health  and  a 
frank,  independent  way  of  looking  at  life. 

When  Patrick  was  fifteen,  his  father  put  him  in  a  country 
store.  Remaining  here  a  year,  he  then  began  business  for  him- 
self. This,  however,  was  not  to  his  taste,  and  after  a  year 
and  a  half  he  gave  it  up  as  a  failure.  For  the  next  six  years 
he  tried  various  lines  of  employment,  but  found  nothing  that 
appealed  to  him.  He  had  become  a  great  reader  and  was 
especially  fond  of  history.  He  had  a  fine  musical  voice,  and 
was  regarded  as  a  good  speaker  and  a  clever  reasoner.  At 
twenty-three,  he  began  to  study  law,  and  after  a  very  short 
time  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  At  last  he  had  found  his 
vocation.  He  may  have  moved  juries  more  by  his  manner  of 
speaking  than  by  his  knowledge  of  law,  but  he  certainly  won 
cases,  and  as  a  result  his  business  grew  rapidly. 

In  May,  1765,  after  the  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act,  Patrick 
Henry,  then  twenty-nine  years  of  age,  became  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Burgesses  at  Williamsburg,  which  was  then  the 
capital  of  Virginia.     The  historian  Cooke  says  he  was  "tali 

13 


14 


PATRICK   HENRY 


in  figure  but  stooping,  with  a  grim  expression,  small  blue 
eyes  which  had  a  peculiar  twinkle,  and  wore  a  brown  wig 
without  powder,  a  peach-blossom  coat  and  yarn  stockings." 


House  of  Burgesses  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia 

At  this  time  the  Stamp  Act  was  the  most  absorbing  topic 
in  men's  minds.  It  was  objectionable  to  all  people,  but  what 
could  be  done  about  it?  There  were  in  the  House  of  Bur- 
gesses many  wealthy  planters  who  considered  it  less  obnox- 
ious than  the  trade  laws.  Others  saw  in  the  law  a  violation 
of  the  rights  of  the  colonists.  Among  that  number  was  the 
recently  elected  young  lawyer,  Patrick  Henry.  He  was 
eager  that  Virginia  should  place  herself  at  once  on  record  as 
decidedly  opposed  to  the  law. 

Finally,  after  three  weeks  of  much  talk  and  no  action, 
impatient  over  the  attitude  of  the  leaders,  Patrick  Henry 
hastily  wrote  on  the  blank  leaf  of  an  old  law  book  some 
resolutions,  then  sprang  to  his  feet  and  offered  them  to  the 
House.    These  resolutions  stated  that  by  the  charters  granted 


CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


15 


■ 


r 


t  - 


to  the  colonists,  they  were 
to  enjoy  the  rights  of  Eng- 
lish subjects.  One  cher- 
ished right  of  Englishmen 
was  to  be  taxed  only  by 
their  representatives.  As 
the  colonists  were  not  rep- 
resented in  Parliament, 
they  could  be  taxed  only  by 
the  colonial  legislatures. 

A  hot  debate  followed, 
during  which  Patrick 
Henry  made  a  most  re- 
markable speech.  He 
closed  with  the  words: 
"Caesar  had  his  Brutus, 
Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell,  and  George  the  Third  —  " 
"Treason!"  *  "Treason!"  was  shouted  through  the  room. 
The  young  orator  paused  a  moment  and  glanced  at  the  angry 

1  In  the  United  States,  treason  consists  in  taking  up  arms  against  tbt> 
United  States  or  in  giving  aid  to  the  enemy  in  time  of  war;  and  its  punishment 
is  death.  In  the  days  of  Patrick  Henry,  many  lesser  offenses  were  regarded 
as  treason. 


Patrick  Henry's  Speech 


1 6  PATRICK  HENRY 

and  excited  Burgesses,  then  continued  —  "  George  the  Third 
may  profit  by  their  example.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the 
most  of  it."     The  resolutions  were  passed. 

The  fearless  but  inexperienced  young  man  had  won  a 
great  victory.  Couriers  and  newspapers  carried  to  every 
part  of  the  colonies  news  of  Patrick  Henry's  speech  and  the 
action  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses.  The  spirit  of 
resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act  grew.  In  October,  a  Congress 
was  called  in  New  York  which  passed  formal  resolutions 
declaring  the  rights  of  the  colonists  as  Englishmen  and  stat- 
ing how  those  rights  had  been  violated.  These  resolutions 
were  sent  to  the  king  and  to  Parliament. 

The  Stamp  Act  was  to  go  into  effect  on  November  first. 
That  day  was  observed  as  a  day  of  mourning  in  all  the  cities. 
Funeral  processions  paraded  the  streets,  bells  tolled,  and 
flags  floated  at  half-mast.  Newspapers  were  printed  with 
black  borders,  and  all  business  was  suspended  for  the  day, 
because  liberty  was  dead.  By  this  time  merchants  had 
agreed  to  import  no  more  goods  from  England.  The  natural 
result  of  this  was  an  injury  to  English  trade  with  the  colonies, 
and  English  merchants  joined  with  the  colonists  in  petition- 
ing Parliament  to  repeal  the  law.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
Benjamin  Franklin  appeared  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons and  pleaded  for  fair  treatment  of  the  Americans. 
Finally,  Parliament  yielded  in  March  of  the  following  year 
and  repealed  the  Stamp  Act,  but  at  the  same  time  asserted 
England's  right  to  tax  the  colonies  whenever  she  wished. 

Patrick  Henry's  work  was  not  yet  done.  Ten  years  later, 
when  the  tea  tax  and  other  objectionable  measures  had  been 
passed  by  Parliament,  and  when  3000  soldiers  had  been  sent 
to  compel  the  people  of  Massachusetts  to  obey  them,  the  First 
Continental  Congress  was  called.    Patrick  Henry  was  a  dele- 


CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION  17 

gate  from  Virginia  and  made  the  opening  speech,  in  which 
he  said,  "I  am  not  a  Virginian,  but  an  American."  This 
Congress  drew  up  some  formal  petitions  to  the  king  and 
Parliament  in  which  they  stated  plainly  their  objections  to 
recent  acts  and  in  most  dignified  language  asked  for  fair 
treatment.  The  Congress  then  adjourned  to  meet  again  the 
next  year. 

About  this  time,  the  royal  governor  of  Virginia  had  dis- 
missed the  House  of  Burgesses  because  they  had  expressed 
sympathy  for  Massachusetts.  This 
aroused  bitter  feeling,  and  a  conven- 
tion of  leading  men  was  called  at 
Richmond.  Here  again  was  Patrick 
Henry  a  leader.  Some  men  favored 
immediate  steps  to  protect  life,  lib- 
erty, and  property.  Others  advised 
waiting,  believing  that  the  English 
government  would  never  harm  her 
colonies.  Patrick  Henry  believed 
that  war  was  sure  to  come  and  that 

...     .    .  Patrick  Henry 

Virginia    must    prepare   at   once  to 

defend  herself.  He  saw  that  the  harsh  measures  of  King 
George  III  in  dealing  with  Massachusetts  and  in  punishing 
Boston,  which  the  king  regarded  as  the  hotbed  of  the  revo- 
lutionary spirit,  were  a  menace  to  the  liberties  of  the  other 
colonies.  After  listening  to  the  endless  talk  of  his  colleagues, 
he  arose  and  spoke  as  if  inspired.  At  the  first  sound  of  his 
voice,  men  turned  and  listened  with  breathless  attention  as 
he  said: 

"We  must  fight!  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight!  An 
appeal  to  arms  and  to  the  God  of  Hosts  is  all  that  is  left 
us!     There  is  no  retreat  but  in  submission  and  slavery! 

MAE.   &  DEF. — 2 


1 8  PATRICK   HENRY 

♦ 

Our  chains  are  forged!  Their  clanking  may  be  heard  on  the 
plains  of  Boston!  The  war  is  inevitable,  and  let  it  come! 
I  repeat  it,  sir,  let  it  come! 

"  Gentlemen  may  cry  peace,  peace  —  but  there  is  no 
peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun!  The  next  gale  that 
sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the  clash  of 
resounding  arms!  Our  brethren  are  already  on  the  field! 
Why  stand  we  here  idle?  What  is  it  that  gentlemen  wish? 
What  would  they  have?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet, 
as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ?  For- 
bid it,  Almighty  God!  I  know  not  what  course  others  may 
take,  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death!" 

This  speech  moved  men  to  action  not  only  in  Virginia  but 
all  through  the  colonies,  just  as  they  had  been  moved  ten 
years  before.  Three  weeks  later,  Lexington  and  Concord 
had  been  fought,  and  the  Revolutionary  War  had  begun. 
Patrick  Henry  was  made  commander  of  Virginia's  forces,  but 
he  was  needed  more  in  the  councils  of  men  than  on  the  field 
of  battle. 

He  served  as  the  first  governor  of  Virginia  and  occupied 
many  other  prominent  positions  in  his  state.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  he  refused  positions  of  honor  and  power 
under  the  new  federal  government  because  he  did  not  believe 
in  it.  Neither  money  nor  honors  could  tempt  Patrick  Henry 
to  support  any  measure  of  which  he  disapproved.  At  the 
same  time  nothing  could  hinder  him  from  speaking  out 
fearlessly  against  illegal  acts  and  unnecessary  oppression. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  enjoying  the  gratitude  of 
all  Americans  for  his  courage  in  demanding  the  rights  of 
free  men. 

Topical  Outline.  —  England  sent  10,000  soldiers  to  hold  the  land  ac- 
quired from  France.    Money  to  help  pay  these  soldiers  raised  by  taxes. 


CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


19 


(a)  Sugar  and  Molasses  Tax;  (b)  Stamp  Tax.  Colonists  complained  of 
(a)  Writs  of  Assistance;  (b)  Trial  without  jury;  (c)  Taxation  without 
representation.     Patrick  Henry's  resolutions. 

For  Written  Work.  —  Write  from  memory  Patrick  Henry's  war 
speech  before  the  convention  at  Richmond. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Williamsburg  and  Richmond  (p.  92). 

Collateral   Reading 

History.  —  Cooke,  "Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion,"  pp.  159-180. 
Biography.  —  Brooks,    "Century    Book    of    Famous    Americans," 
pp.  92-112;  Patrick  Henry,  "The  War  Inevitable." 


Lantern  used  at  Celebration 
of  the  Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act 


SAMUEL  ADAMS 

While  Patrick  Henry  was  urging  the  people  of  Virginia 
to  protect  their  rights  as  Englishmen,  there  were  men  in  New 
England  working  just  as  earnestly  for  the  same  cause.  One 
of  these  men  was  Samuel  Adams,  who  was  born  in  1722, 
fourteen  years  earlier  than  Patrick  Henry.  Although  these 
two  men  had  much  the  same  ideas  about  government  and 
showed  the  same  unselfish  spirit  in  their  efforts  to  improve  it, 
they  were  very  different  in  habit  and  training. 

We  find  Samuel  Adams  as  a  little  boy  showing  great  fond- 
ness for  his  books.  His  father  was  a  prosperous  gentleman 
of  Boston,  living  in  a  fine  house  and  able  to  give  his  son  the 
best  school  advantages.  The  boy  accepted  them  and  used 
them  well.  There  is  a  story  that  he  was  so  punctual  in 
going  to  school  that  people  set  their  clocks  and  men  reg- 
ulated their  work, by  him,  saying:  "Sam  Adams  has  gone 
to  school,  it's  time  for  business."  This  may  be  only  an 
idle  tale,  but  undoubtedly  there  is  some  good  reason  for  its 
being  told.  Samuel  Adams  loved  books  and  study.  He  was 
diligent,  silent,  and  thoughtful  long  before  he  became  a  man. 
All  his  life  he  was  fond  of  quoting  Greek  and  Latin,  and  his 
quotations  showed  wide  reading  in  those  languages.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  when  he  was  eighteen,  but 
he  remained  three  years  longer  and  continued  his  studies  for 
a  master's  degree. 

His  family  wished  him  to  study  for  the  ministry,  but  he 

preferred  law.     As  his  parents  obiected  to  his  becoming  a 

20 


CAUSES   OF   THE    REVOLUTION 


21 


lawyer,  he  went  into  business  with  his  father.  He  had  little 
taste  for  a  business  life,  and  undoubtedly  an  excellent  lawyer 
was  lost  to  the  world  when  Samuel  Adams  was  compelled  to 
share  his  father's  work.     His  reading  and  study  continued 

alons:  lines  of  his- 

— _    -* — — '-?« 


tory,   politics,    and 
law,  and  his  busi- 
ness was  neglected. 
Samuel     Adams 
was    a    prominent 
figure  in  the  town 
meetings  from  the 
time  he  was  a  very 
young    man.      He 
came    into    special 
notice  when  he  pro- 
tested   against   the 
Stamp    Act.     Like 
Patrick  Henry,  he 
spoke     and    wrote 
against  the  injustice 
of    this    tax.      He 
boldly  declared  that 
if  the  king  and  Par-  Samuel  Adams  eoing  to  Sch°o1 

liament  could  levy  such  a  tax  they  would  soon  assert  the  right 
to  tax  everything  that  the  colonies  possessed.  Not  content 
with  words  he  helped  to  organize  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  a  soci- 
ety banded  together  to  destroy  the  stamped  paper  as  soon  as  it 
arrived.  This  organization  soon  spread  to  the  other  colonies. 
It  is  claimed  that  Samuel  Adams  first  proposed  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress,  which  issued  a  Declaration  of  Rights  and  sent 
to  the  king  and  to  the  House  of  Commons  a  protest,  couched 


22  SAMUEL  ADAMS 

in  respectful  language,  against  the  hated  measure.  He  organ- 
ized Committees  of  Correspondence  with  the  other  colonies 
to  get  united  action  against  the  tyranny  of  Parliament. 

How  the  opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act,  not  only  in  the  col- 
onies but  also  in  England,  soon  brought  about  its  repeal  has 
been  told  in  the  story  of  Patrick  Henry.  But  England  did 
not  give  up  the  right  to  tax  the  colonies.  Other  measures  were 
passed  by  Parliament,  chief  among  which  was  a  tax  on  tea, 
glass,  paper,  and  painters'  colors  imported  into  the  colonies. 
This  measure  was  equally  hateful  to  the  colonists,  and  the 
spirit  of  resistance  became  so  great  that  in  1769  two  regi- 
ments of  English  soldiers  were  sent  to  Boston  to  overawe 
the  people.  The  royal  Governor  Hutchinson  was  very  glad 
to  have  them  to  help  him  enforce  the  laws.  These  soldiers 
should  have  been  stationed  in  the  empty  barracks  at  Castle 
William  in  the  harbor,  but  instead  quarters  were  hired  for 
them  in  the  city.  The  people  were  naturally  indignant,  and 
very  soon  let  the  soldiers  know  how  unwelcome  they  were. 
Even  schoolboys  would  use  the  "redcoat"  as  a  target  for 
snowballs  and  bean  shooters.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sol- 
diers raced  horses  on  Sunday  through  the  streets  of  Boston 
and  played  and  sang  all  sorts  of  improper  songs  before  the 
church  doors  at  the  time  of  Sunday  services.  There  were 
frequent  encounters  between  citizens  and  soldiers.  About 
this  time,  James  Otis,  the  man  who  opposed  the  Writs  of 
Assistance,  was  attacked  and  cut  on  the  head  during  a  dis- 
pute, with  a  customs  officer.  The  injury  was  so  great  that 
he  suffered  from  it  for  the  rest  of  his  long  life.  People  did 
not  easily  forget  such  things. 

One  day  in  March,  1770,  serious  trouble  grew  out  of  a 
trifling  incident.  A  rope  maker  and  a  soldier  got  into  a  quar- 
rel on  the  street,  and  an  excited  crowd  soon  collected  and 


CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


23 


hurled  stones,  sticks,  snowballs,  and  chunks  of  ice  at  the  sol- 
diers who  came  to  their  comrade's  assistance.  The  soldiers 
fired;  three  citizens  were  killed  and  eight  were  wounded. 
This  is  called  the  Boston  Massacre. 

A  town  meeting  was  held  the  next  day  in  Faneuil  Hall,  and 


The  Boston  Massacre 

Samuel  Adams  was  appointed  to  demand  the  withdrawal 
of  the  troops.  He  went  to  Governor  Hutchinson,  who  said 
he  would  withdraw  one  regiment.  Adams  replied,  "If  you 
have  power  to  remove  one  regiment  you  have  power  to  remove 
two,  and  nothing  less  will  satisfy  the  people."  Both  regi- 
ments were  at  once  removed  to  Castle  William,  where  they 
should  have  been  stationed  seventeen  months  before.  This 
was  regarded  as  a  most  decided  victory  for  the  patriots. 

It  was  clearly  understood  by  this  time  that  the  colonists 
did  not  object  so  much  to  paying  taxes  as  to  the  principle  of 
being  taxed  by  the  English  Parliament  in  which  they  were 
not  represented.     The  king  and   Parliament  believed  that 


24  SAMUEL   ADAMS 

they  had  a  right  to  tax  the  colonists,  and  they  wanted  to 
maintain  that  right.  As  the  colonists  refused  to  buy  the 
things  taxed  by  Parliament,  the  tax  was  now  dropped  on 
everything  except  tea.  For  the  king  often  said,  "  There  must 
be  one  tax  to  keep  the  right  to  tax." 

In  the  fall  of  1773  a  rumor  reached  America  that  several 
cargoes  of  tea  were  soon  to  be  forced  on  the  colonies.  The 
Committees  of  Correspondence,  under  the  direction  of  Sam- 
uel Adams,  wrote  to  all  the  cities  to  refuse  the  tea.  Societies 
were  formed  of  men  and  women  who  pledged  themselves  to 
use  no  tea  so  long  as  it  was  taxed,  although  the  tax  was  very 
small. 

One  tea  ship  reached  Boston,  November  28,  1773.  A  town 
meeting  of  5000  people  was  at  once  held,  which  voted  to  send 
the  tea  back  to  England.  A  guard  of  twenty-five  citizens 
went  on  board  the  vessel  to  prevent  the  landing.  Armed  men 
watched  the  wharf,  sentinels  were  stationed  in  church  bel- 
fries, postriders  were  chosen  with  horses  saddled  and  bridled, 
ready  to  give  the  signal  if  the  officers  attempted  to  land  the 
tea.  The  ship  could  not  return  to  England  without  clear- 
ance papers,  and  the  royal  governor  would  not  give  them. 

On  the  nineteenth  day  after  the  arrival  of  the  tea  ship, 
another  great  mass  meeting  was  held  in  the  Old  South 
Church.  A  man  had  been  sent  to  the  royal  governor  to  urge 
him  to  order  the  ship  back  to  England.  When  the  messenger 
returned  and  reported  to  the  meeting  that  the  governor 
refused,  Samuel  Adams  rose  and  said,  "This  meeting  can 
do  no  more  to  save  the  country." 

Arrangements  had  been  made  to  save  the  country  in 
another  way  if  the  governor  refused  to  do  as  the  people 
requested.  On  the  signal  from  Samuel  Adams,  men,  dressed 
like  Indians,  gathered  from  all  parts  of  Boston  and  rushed  to 


CAUSES    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 


25 


the  wharf.  What  they  did  is  simply  told  by  the  captain  of 
the  tea  ship  in  his  journal.  "  Between  six  and  seven  o'clock 
this  evening  came  down  to  the  wharf  a  body  of  about  a 
thousand  people;  among  them  were  a  number  dressed  and 
whooping  like  Indians.     They  came  on  board  ship,  and  after 


Throwing  the  Tea  Overboard 

warning  myself  and  the  custom-house  officer  to  get  out  of  the 
way,  they  went  down  the  hold  where  were  the  chests  of  tea 
which  they  hoisted  up  on  deck,  and  cut  the  chests  to  pieces 
and  hove  the  tea  all  overboard,  where  it  was  damaged  and 
lost."  Two  other  tea  ships  that  had  arrived  in  the  mean- 
while were  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Before  nine  o'clock  that  night,  342  chests  of  tea  had  been 
cut  open,  and  tea  had  been  made  with  salt  water  on  a  large 
scale.  It  was  an  orderly  band  of  "  Indians"  that  did  this  work. 
One  spectator  said  that  an  Indian  blanket  slipped  down 
and  showed  the  crimson  velvet  sleeve  and  point  lace  ruffles 


26  SAMUEL  ADAMS 

of  John  Hancock's  regular  costume.  We  are  told  that,  "Not 
a  person  was  harmed;  no  other  property  was  injured;  and 
the  vast  crowd,  looking  upon  the  scene  from  the  wharf  in  the 
clear  frosty  moonlight,  was  so  still  that  the  click  of  the 
1  Indians"  hatchets  could  be  distinctly  heard." 

The  next  morning,  Samuel  Adams  wrote  a  formal  account 
of  the  work  of  the  night  before,  and  postriders  were  sent  to 
the  other  colonies  with  it.  His  cousin  John  Adams  wrote  in 
his  diary,  "  Last  night  three  cargoes  of  tea  were  emptied  into 
the  sea.  This  morning  a  man-of-war  sails.  This  is  the 
most  magnificent  move  of  all.  There  is  a  dignity,  a  majesty, 
a  sublimity  in  this  last  effort  of  the  patriots  that  I  greatly 
admire.  The  people  should  never  rise  without  doing  some- 
thing to  be  remembered  —  something  notable  and  striking. 
This  destruction  of  the  tea  is  so  bold,  so  daring,  so  firm,  so 
intrepid,  and  inflexible,  and  it  must  have  so  important  conse- 
quences, and  so  lasting,  that  I  cannot  but  consider  it  an  epoch 
in  history." 

When  the  report  of  this  "tea  party"  reached  England,  the 
government  was  most  indignant.  Parliament  passed  a  bill 
closing  the  port  of  Boston  to  all  vessels.  The  royal  governor 
was  recalled,  and  General  Gage,  the  commander  of  the  Eng- 
lish troops  in  America,  was  ordered  to  Boston  as  military 
governor. 

Samuel  Adams  then  drew  up  an  appeal  to  the  colonies, 
saying:  "They  have  ordered  our  port  to  be  entirely  shut 
up,  leaving  us  barely  so  much  as  to  keep  us  from  perishing 
with  cold  and  hunger.  .  .  .  The  act  fills  the  inhabit- 
ants with  indignation.  This  attack  though  made  immedi- 
ately upon  us,  is  doubtless  designed  for  every  other  colony 
who  shall  not  surrender  their  sacred  rights  and  liberties. 
Now,  therefore,  is  the  time  when  all  should  be  united  in 


CAUSES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 


27 


opposition  to  this  violation  of  the  liberties  of  all."  Replies 
came  from  all  the  colonies,  heartily  approving  the  conduct  of 
Boston.  Money  and  food  supplies  were  sent  to  the  people 
in  and  around  the  city.  Such  generosity  might  prevent  the 
people  from  suffering  through  want,  but  it  could  not  diminish 
the  bitterness  felt  against  England  for  passing  such  a  law. 
Through  the  Committees  of  Correspondence  Samuel  Adams 
urged  the  meeting  of  a  Continental  Congress  in  the  fall  of 
1774.  It  was  a  remark- 
ably self-controlled,  well- 
bred  body  of  men.  They 
opposed  any  hasty  con- 
duct that  might  bring  on 
war  with  the  mother  coun- 
try, but  they  believed  that 
war  must  come  and  it  was 
better  to  be  prepared  for 
it.  First,  however,  they 
would  petition  the  Eng- 
lish government  for  better 
treatment.  In  the  mean- 
time they  recommended 
the  collection  of  arms  and 
supplies  at  convenient 
places     for    self-defense. 

They    also     approved     of  Statue  of  Minuternan  at  Concord 

the  trainbands  of  minutemen  and  urged  that  more  be  or- 
ganized. 

These  minutemen  were  farmers  and  villagers,  men  and 
boys,  organized  in  companies  that  "exercised"  after  the  day's 
work  was  over.  They  were  pledged  to  be  ready  on  a  minute's 
notice.     Massachusetts  had  about  1800  of  them  early  in  1775. 


28  SAMUEL  ADAMS 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  diary  of  a  young  minute- 
man: 

"Jan.  ii,  1775  —  We  went  to  the  training  field  near  Rev. 
Barnes'  meeting-house.  There  were  three  companies  of 
minute  men.  We  were  marched  into  the  meeting-house. 
A  prayer  was  made,  the  scripture  was  read  and  a  lecture 
delivered  to  us  by  the  Rev.  Barnes.  We  then  were  marched 
out  and  exercised  some  more  on  the  green. 

"Jan.  17.  —  We  exercised  in  a  new  way  today  called  the 
64th. 

"Feb.  8. —  I  wrought  on  cartridge  boxes  all  day.  In  the 
evening  I  cast  bullets  in  the  sand. 

"Feb.  13.  —  In  the  forenoon  I  made  my  sword  belt  and 
bayonet  belt.  In  the  afternoon  I  made  cartridge  boxes  and 
went  to  training  early. 

"March  21.  —  I  spent  the  whole  morning  scowering  and 
cleaning  my  gun  and  fixing  her.  After  I  had  cleaned  and 
oyled  the  lock,  I  put  in  a  good  flint  and  tried  to  burn  three 
corns  of  powder.  I  cocked  her  and  snapped  and  she  burnt 
them." 

In  this  First  Continental  Congress,  as  well  as  later  Con- 
gresses, Samuel  Adams  was  an  important  figure.  The  king 
and  Parliament,  recognizing  how  powerful  was  his  influence 
throughout  New  England,  had  urged  the  governor  to  win 
him  over  to  the  side  of  the  royalists.  Adams  was  known  to 
be  a  poor  man,  so  positions  carrying  large  salaries  were  offered 
him  from  time  to  time,  but  he  always  recognized  the  offer  as 
a  bribe  and  scorned  it. 

Finally,  in  1775,  the  king  wanted  to  be  rid  of  such  powerful 
enemies  as  Adams  and  John  Hancock,  so  he  ordered  General 
Gage  to  have  them  arrested  and  sent  to  England  for  trial. 
But  this  was  found  impossible,  for  neither  man  had  over- 


CAUSES  OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


29 


stepped  the  law.  The  king  then  ordered  their  capture,  dead 
or  alive;  but  this  order  was  not  carried  out,  as  we  shall  learn 
from  the  Battle  of  Lexington. 

War  came,  and,  like  Patrick  Henry,  Samuel  Adams  had 
to  serve  in  the  council  room  instead  of  on  the  battlefield. 
From  the  first  of  the  trouble  with  England  he  had  urged 
independence,  and  prob- 
ably no  man  in  the  Sec- 
ond Continental  Con- 
gress felt  happier  than  he 
over  the  work  of  July  4, 
1776.  After  the  war  he 
was  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts several  terms, 
and  in  1796  he  received 
a  few  votes  for  the  presi- 
dency. He  retired  from 
public  life  at  seventy-five 
and  died  at  eighty-two. 

The  following  tells  how 
he  looked  at  seventy:  aHe 
always  walked  with  his 
family  to  and  from  church 

until  his  failing  strength  prevented.  His  stature  was  a  little 
above  medium  height.  He  wore  a  tie-wig,  cocked  hat,  buckled 
shoes,  knee  breeches  and  a  red  cloak,  and  held  himself  very 
erect,  with.the  ease  and  address  of  a  polite  gentleman.  .  .  . 
He  never  wore  glasses  in  public,  except  when  engaged  in  his 
official  duties  at  the  state  house.  His  complexion  was  florid 
and  his  eyes  dark  blue.  The  eyebrows  were  heavy,  almost 
to  bushiness,  and  contrasted  remarkably  with  the  clear  fore- 
head, which  at  the  age  of  70  had  few  wrinkles.     He  had  a 


Samuel  Adams 


3° 


SAMUEL  ADAMS 


kind  but  careworn  expression  blended  with  native  dignity  of 
countenance,  which  never  failed  to  impress  strangers." 

Although  Samuel  Adams  was  connected  with  political  life 
and  held  the  highest  offices  of  his  state,  he  remained  a  poor 
man  all  his  life.  Truly  it  can  be  said  of  him  that  his  interest 
in  politics  was  for  the  good  of  the  people. 


Topical  Outline.  —  Boyhood  of  Samuel  Adams.  Opposition  to  the 
tax  law.  "Boston  Massacre."  "The  Tea  Party."  The  Port  Bill 
passed  to  punish  Boston.  Adams's  correspondence  with  the  other  col- 
onies.    First  Continental  Congress.    War. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Compare  Patrick  Henry's  boyhood  with 
that  of  Samuel  Adams.  II.  Imagine  you  were  one  of  the  "Indians" 
and  describe  the  tea  party  as  you  shared  in  it.  III.  As  a  schoolboy 
tell  why  you  pelted  the  soldiers  with  snowballs. 


■  ■/■-, 


> 


■!•:  bSi.-l.3SS.  &OiSi"Mi^£iv:    i.-ir^zctXi:  u±>}  .-iiic:.. 


■  a»83IB3aoSaU  jus  (JBttSffi  .xmnsis  WM&B&t^ 

,     '55a  aeinaj.'EJSai ; :•  ± .. 


- — 't^---!-^'. .'  T 


The  "  Tea  Party  "  Tablet  on  Long  Wharf, 
Boston 


WAR  BEGINS  — LEXINGTON  AND  CONCORD 

The  military  supplies  of  Massachusetts  had  been  collected 
in  an  old  barn  near  a  bridge  at  Concord.  Knowledge  of  this 
had  reached  General  Gage,  and  he  decided  to  destroy  the 
supplies  and,  if  possible,  to  capture  Samuel  Adams  and  John 
Hancock,  who  were  at  Lexington.  Accordingly,  on  the  night 
of  the  18th  of  April,  1775,  he  sent  for  this  purpose  a  force  of 
troops  under  the  command  of  Major  Pitcairn  from  the  British 
encampment  in  Boston.     This  action  had  been  expected  by 


Country  axound  Boston 

the  patriots,  and  sentinels  '  were  always  ready  to  spread  the 
alarm  if  the  soldiers  in  the  city  made  any  attempt  to  leave 
town. 

One  of  these  sentinels,  Paul  Revere,  watching  from  the 
Charlestown  side  of  the  Charles  River,  saw  the  signal  lights 

1  Read  "  Paul  Revere's  Ride." 
31 


32 


THE   REVOLUTION 


flash  out  from  the  tower  of  Old  North  Church.  Mounting 
a  swift  horse,  he  rode  through  the  night  toward  Lexington, 
arousing  the  countryside.  When  he  reached  the  village,  he 
found  militiamen  guarding  the  house  in  which  Adams  and 
Hancock  were  asleep.    They  warned  him  not  to  make  a 


Paul  Revere  at  the  House  of  Hancock  and  Adams 

noise.  "Noise!"  cried  Revere,  "You'll  soon  have  noise 
enough.     The  regulars  are  coming." 

When  Pitcairn  and  his  800  regulars  reached  Lexington 
about  daylight,  April  19th,  they  were  surprised  to  find  about 
150  minutemen  facing  them  on  the  green  in  front  of  the 
church.  They  were  also  surprised  to  learn  that  the  two  men 
they  wished  to  capture  had  escaped  during  the  night,  warned 
in  time  by  the  midnight  message  of  Paul  Revere. 

Captain  Parker  of  the  minutemen,  while  waiting  for  the 
English,  said  to  his  men:  "Stand  your  ground.     Don't  fire 


LEXINGTON   AND   CONCORD 


33 


unless  fired  upon.  But  if  they  mean  to  have  war,  let  it  begin 
here."  Major  Pitcairn  and  his  red-coated  soldiers  marched 
up  and  haughtily  faced  the  minutemen.  The  major  shouted : 
"  Disperse,  ye  villains,  ye  rebels,  disperse!  Lay  down  your 
arms!     Why  don't  ye  lay  down  your  arms?"     The  patriots 


The  Fight  at  Lexington 


moved  not  an  inch.  A  shot  was  fired  by  some  one.  Pit- 
cairn swore  he  did  not  order  his  men  to  fire,  but  they  fired 
and  eight  patriots  were  killed.  In  the  confusion,  no  one 
apparently  waited  for  orders.  One  hundred  and  fifty  men 
knew  they  could  not  long  hold  eight  hundred  in  check,  so 
they  fell  back,  and  the  English  soldiers  moved  on  toward 
Concord. 

Meanwhile  minutemen  "  from  every  Middlesex  village  and 
farm"  had  been  pouring  into  Concord  and  had  removed  all 
the  supplies  they  could  to  a  place  of  safety.  Early  in  the 
afternoon  the  English  appeared  and,  after  burning  the  town- 
hall,  pushed  on  to  the  outskirts  of  the  village.    Here  at  Con- 


MAK.   &  DEF. — 1 


34  THE   REVOLUTION 

cord  Bridge  another  skirmish  was  fought  with  the  minutemen. 
Little  damage  had  been  done  to  the  supplies,  and  few  men  had 
been  killed,  when  the  English  began  their  retreat  toward 
Boston.  But,  as  Emerson  says,  the  "  embattled  farmers" 
here  had  "  fired  a  shot  heard  round  the  world." 

The  return  trip  to  Boston  was  a  sad  experience  to  the  Brit- 
ish soldiers.  The  day  was  very  hot  for  early  spring.  They 
had  been  up  all  night  and  had  had  little  chance  to  eat  any- 
thing during  the  day.  Besides  this,  they  were  continually 
fired  on  by  minutemen  hurrying  toward  the  Concord  road 
from  all  directions.  For  ten  miles  the  road  was  strewn  with 
wounded  "redcoats,"  and  it  was  a  demoralized  company  of 
soldiers  that  was  met  by  reinforcements  later  that  afternoon. 

Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 

After  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord,  the  patriot 
army,  made  up  of  nearly  20,000  minutemen,  gathered  about 
Boston  and  besieged  it.  The  patriots  occupied  a  semicir- 
cular position,  cutting  off  all  communication  between  the 
English  army  in  the  city  and  the  interior  of  the  state.  The 
Second  Continental  Congress,  then  sitting  in  Philadelphia, 
appointed  George  Washington  commander  of  the  army,  and 
sent  troops  from  other  colonies  to  Massachusetts. 

Before  Washington  reached  Cambridge  in  July,  the  men  of 
Massachusetts  had  fought  another  battle.  During  May  and 
the  first  two  weeks  in  June,  the  patriot  army  was  busy  col- 
lecting supplies,  drilling,  making  themselves  familiar  with 
the  situation,  and  studying  methods  of  defense  and  attack. 
It  was  decided  to  take  Bunker  Hill,  back  of  Charlestown,  as 
soon  as  possible,  for  this  would  command  the  city  of  Boston. 
By  placing  their  cannon  on  this  hill,  they  might  be  able  to 


BATTLE    OE    BUNKER   HILL 


35 


drive  the  English  out  of  the  city.  It  is  interesting  to  know 
that  the  English  had  also  planned  to  fortify  this  hill,  but  did 
not  begin  to  do  it  in  time. 

On  the  night  of  June  16,  1775,  a  force  of  600  men  were  put 
at  work  building  a  redoubt  about  eight  rods  square  on  the 


The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 


top  of  the  hill.  On  one 
side  of  the  hill  breastworks 
were  thrown  up,  while  a 
rail  fence  on  the  other  side 
was  filled  with  sods  and 
brush.  The  men  had  to 
work  very  quickly  and  quietly,  for  sentinels  were  watching 
on  English  ships  in  the  harbor,  but  a  few  rods  away;  and  in 
the  silent  night  air  the  click  of  a  shovel  might  betray  to  them 
what  the  patriots  were  doing. 

The  work  was  nearly  completed  when,  just  at  daybreak, 
Captain  Linzer  of  an  English  vessel  noticed  a  stir  on  the 
hill  and  opened  fire.     Other  vessels  then  began  firing  and 


36  THE   REVOLUTION 

continued  during  the  forenoon,  but  without  doing  much  dam- 
age. General  Gage,  in  command  of  the  English  troops,  saw 
that  if  the  patriots  should  succeed  in  planting  siege  guns  on 
the  hill  they  might  force  him  to  give  up  the  city,  so  he  planned 
a  general  attack  upon  the  patriots'  position. 

It  was,  however,  about  noon  before  the  English  army, 
2500  strong,  began  this  attack.  They  advanced  up  the  hill 
in  three  divisions.  The  patriots  were  sheltered  behind  their 
defenses,  and  when  the  enemy  came  within  range  of  their 
guns,  they  fired,  cutting  down  a  row  of  men  in  the  front 
rank,  including  officers.  The  English  fell  back,  but  twice 
they  were  rallied  and  led  again  to  the  assault.  Soon  after 
they  began  their  third  attack,  the  firing  from  the  redoubt 
ceased.  The  Americans'  ammunition  was  gone.  The  Eng- 
lish then  eagerly  pressed  on  into  the  breastworks,  where  there 
was  a  hand-to-hand  contest.  As  the  patriots  had  no  bayonets, 
they  were  unequal  to  the  task,  and  about  nightfall  were 
obliged  to  retreat. 

The  English  lost  many  officers  and  a  much  larger  number 
of  men  than  the  Americans,  but  the  latter  were  obliged  to 
give  up  their  position  on  the  hill.  It  is  called,  of  course,  an 
English  victory,  but  it  was  one  dearly  bought.  A  few  days 
later,  General  Gage  wrote  to  the  English  government  as 
follows: 

"The  success,  of  which  I  send  your  lordships  an  account 
by  the  present  opportunity,  was  very  necessary  in  our  present 
situation;  and  I  wish  most  sincerely  it  had  not  cost  so  dear. 
The  number  of  killed  and  wounded  is  greater  than  our  force 
can  afford  to  lose.  The  officers  who  were  obliged  to  exert 
themselves  have  suffered  very  much;  and  we  have  lost  some 
extremely  good  officers.  The  trials  we  have  had  show  the 
rebels  are  not  the  despicable  rabble  too  many  have  supposed 


BATTLE   OF   BUNKER  HILL  37 

them  to  be;  and  I  find  it  owing  to  a  military  spirit  encouraged 
among  them  for  a  few  years  past,  joined  with  an  uncommon 
degree  of  zeal  and  enthusiasm,  that  they  are  otherwise." 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Boston,  Lexington,  Concord,  Charlestown. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Brooks,  "Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State,"  pp.  118,  135; 
Dawes,  "Colonial  Massachusetts,"  pp.  42-72;  Brooks,  "Century  Book 
of  the  American  Revolution,"  pp.  1-68. 

Poetry.  —  Longfellow,  "Paul  Revere's  Ride";  Emerson,  "Concord 
Hymn";  Pierpont,  "Warren's  Address  ";  Stevenson,  "  Poems  of  Ameri- 
can History." 

Fiction.  —  Cooper,  "Lionel  Lincoln";  Butterworth,  "The  Patriot 
Schoolmaster";  Adams,  "Watchfires  of  '76." 


Drum  used  at  Bunker 
Hill 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  THE  YOUNG  VIRGINIAN 

As  we  have  read  about  the  beginnings  of  the  Revolution, 
we  have  met  the  name  of  a  man  who  was  to  play  the  most 
important  part  in  our  struggle  for  independence.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  turn  back  in  our  story  in  order  to  see  how  this 
young  Virginia  planter,  George  Washington,  was  fitted  for 
the  great  work  he  had  to  do. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  two  brothers 
emigrated  from  England  to  America.  They  were  of  the 
sturdy  middle  class  of  Old  England,  good  stock  for  coloniz- 
ing a  new  world.  These  brothers  purchased  land  in  Vir- 
ginia between  the  Potomac  and  Rappahannock  Rivers,  and 
one  of  them,  Colonel  John  Washington,  as  he  was  known  in 
his  new  home,  became  a  man  of  influence  in  the  community. 
His  grandson,  Augustine,  was  born  in  1694  and  grew  to  be  a 
man  of  unusual  physical  power  and  of  strong  character. 
Like  his  father  and  grandfather,  Augustine  Washington  was 
a  planter,  one  of  the  large  landowners  of  Virginia,  and  was 
considered  wealthy  for  those  times.  He  was  twice  married, 
and  his  second  wife,  Mary  Ball,  was  a  woman  of  beauty  and 
of  sound  common  sense. 

To  them,  at  the  old  homestead  in  Westmoreland  County, 
was  born  on  February  22,  1732,  a  son  whom  they  named 
George.  While  he  was  a  little  boy,  the  family  moved  to  a 
plantation  near  Fredericksburg,  and  there  most  of  his  boyhood 
days  were  spent.  This  boy  had  back  of  him  good  blood  and 
good  breeding,  and  he  proved  worthy  of  them.     His  father, 

38 


EARLY   LIFE  39 

although  rich  in  land,  had  little  ready  money,  and  so  was 
unable  to  give  all  of  his  large  family  the  advantages  of  a 
thorough  education.  There  were  few  good  schools  in  the 
colonies  at  that  time,  so  Lawrence,  the  eldest  son,  was  sent 
to  England  to  finish  his  training,  while  George  was  learning 
the  simple  rudiments  of  a  common  school  education  at  home. 
This  school  was  taught  by  the  sexton  of  the  parish,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  the  active  boy  had  learned  all  the  village 
schoolmaster  could  teach  him. 

George  was  at  this  time  a  sturdy,  well-built  little  fellow, 
with  a  strongly  knit  frame,  giving  promise  of  the  muscular 
man  to  come.  When  he  was  about  eight  years  old  his  brother 
Lawrence  returned  from  England,  and  a  strong  affection 
sprang  up  between  the  young  man  just  out  of  college  and  the 

little  boy. 

Lawrence  served  for  a  time  in  the  West  Indies  in  the  war 
between  England  and  Spain,  and  probably  was  regarded  by 
his  small  brother  as  a  great  military  hero.  So  George,  at 
home,  organized  among  the  schoolboys  companies  of  sol- 
diers and  played  at  war.  Without  doubt,  he  formed  some- 
thing of  a  taste  for  adventure  at  this  early  age.  He  even  at 
one  time  wished  to  become  a  sailor  and  had  obtained  a 
midshipman's  berth  through  his  brother  Lawrence's  influence, 
but  gave  it  up  to  please  his  mother. 

In  1743,  Augustine  Washington  died,  and  his  large  landed 
property  was  divided  among  his  children.  To  Lawrence  was 
given  the  estate  on  the  Potomac,  which  he  afterward  named 
Mount  Vernon  in  honor  of  the  Admiral  Vernon,  under  whom 
he  had  served  in  the  Spanish  wars.  The  old  homestead 
in  Westmoreland  County  was  given  to  Augustine,  another 
brother,  while  George,  when  he  became  of  age,  was  to  have 
the  lands  on  the  Rappahannock. 


40  GEORGE    WASHINGTON 

In  order  that  George  might  have  better  school  advantages 
he  was  now  sent  to  live  with  his  brother  Augustine.  Here 
he  attended  an  academy  kept  by  the  Rev.  James  May  re,  a 
French  emigrant,  who  gave  him  a  practical  business  educa- 
tion. He  was  good  in  mathematics,  especially  in  geometry 
and  in  surveying.  His  fondness  for  these  studies,  together 
with  his  love  of  an  outdoor  life,  had  much  to  do  with  his 
choice  of  a  profession;  for  he  soon  began  to  fit  himself  to 
become  a  surveyor. 

George  was  a  serious-minded  boy,  somewhat  shy  and 
diffident,  and  large  for  his  age.  His  schoolmates  looked  upon 
him  with  affection  and  with  so  much  respect  that  their  boyish 
disputes  were  usually  referred  to  him  for  settlement.  Many  of 
his  schoolbooks  and  exercises  have  been  preserved,  and  they 
show  that  he  was  already  forming  those  careful  and  methodi- 
cal habits  that  were  so  marked  in  his  later  life.  A  copy 
book  which  he  made  about  1745  is  most  interesting.  In  it 
were  copied,  in  a  neat  and  painstaking  hand,  bonds,  receipts, 
and  other  business  forms.  When  he  was  tired,  he  would 
stop,  like  most  boys,  and  draw  in  the  margin  pictures  of  birds 
or  of  his  schoolmates. 

But  the  best  parts  of  this  copy  book  are  the  "Rules  of 
Civility."  The  master  thought  that  his  boys  should  be 
taught  good  manners  and  good  conduct  as  well  as  arith- 
metic, so  George  copied  and  studied  these  rules  faithfully. 
Without  doubt,  they  had  a  great  influence  in  forming  his 
habits  and  character. 

It  would  be  well  if  the  boys  and  girls  of  to-day  could  study 
these  quaint  rules  of  conduct  as  faithfully  as  did  Washington. 
Here  are  some  of  them: 

"  Let  your  countenance  be  pleasant,  but  in  serious  matters 
somewhat  grave. 


EARLY    LIFE 


41 


"Show  not  yourself  glad  at  the  misfortune  of  another, 
though  he  were  your  enemy. 

"Talk  not  with  meat  in  your  mouth. 

"Speak  not  evil  of  the  absent,  for  it  is  unjust. 

"Labour  to  keep  alive  in  your  breast  that  little  Spark  of 
Celestial  fire  called  Conscience." 

But  we  must  not  think  that  the  thoughtful,  studious  boy 
was  wholly  devoted  to  his  books.  He  was  also  unusually 
fond  of  the  free  out-of-door  life  so  commonly  followed  in 
colonial  Virginia.  In  the  fields  and  in  the  forests  he  learned 
much  that  is  not  taught  in  books,  and  his  courage,  his  self- 
reliance,  and  his  rugged  strength  came  largely  from  contact 
with  nature.  He  learned  to  shoot  straight,  to  ride  well,  and 
to  hold  his  own  in  swimming,  in  wrestling,  in  pitching  quoits, 
and  in  other  boyish  sports. 

A  story  is  told  of  him  that  shows  his  skill  as  a  rider  and  his 
strong  sense  of  honor. 
Sorrel,  the  finest  colt 
on  his  mother's  farm, 
was  high-spirited  and 
difficult  to  manage. 
One  morning  when 
the  boys  were  in  the 
pasture,  George  tried 
to  ride  this  colt.  He 
had  nearly  succeeded 
in  mastering  the  ani- 
mal, when  Sorrel, 
leaping  and  plunging 


Washington  tries  to  ride  the  Colt 


around  the  lot  in  an  effort  to  unseat  the  boy,  burst  a  blood 
vessel  and  soon  died.  The  boys  were  of  course  afraid  to  tell 
Mrs.  Washington  what  had  happened.    When  they  came  in 


42  GEORGE    WASHINGTON 

to  breakfast,  she  asked  how  they  found  the  horses,  and  George 
honestly  told  the  story  of  the  accident.  For  a  moment  she 
was  angry,  for  she  was  fond  of  the  splendid  animal,  but  she 
soon  said  that  she  was  proud  of  her  boy  for  telling  the  truth 
at  once  and  not  trying  to  shield  himself. 

In  1747,  George's  school  days  ended  and  he  went  to  live 
with  his  brother  Lawrence  at  Mount  Vernon.  Here  he  soon 
put  to  practical  use  his  knowledge  of  surveying,  and  busied 
himself  in  running  lines  and  in  measuring  his  brother's 
estate.  Here,  too,  he  had  an  opportunity  to  test  those  rules 
of  conduct  by  which  he  was  shaping  his  character. 

On  an  estate  adjoining  Mount  Vernon,  lived  Lord  Fair- 
fax, a  courtly,  white-haired  English  gentlemen  who  owned 
immense  tracts  of  land  in  Virginia.  This  nobleman  soon 
noticed  the  modest,  well-bred  boy,  and  a  strong  friendship 
sprang  up  between  them.  Washington  was  a  welcome  vis- 
itor at  Belvoir,  Lord  Fairfax's  home.  They  rode  together, 
they  went  fox  hunting  together,  and  the  boy  must  have 
absorbed  from  the  man  of  the  world  something  of  the  culture 
and  of  the  sound,  mellow  civilization  of  which  the  fine  old 
English  gentleman  was  so  good  a  type. 

It  was  Lord  Fairfax  who  gave  Washington  his  first  employ- 
ment as  a  surveyor.  He  saw  that  the  boy  who  showed  such 
energy  and  accuracy  in  surveying  his  brother's  lands,  was 
worthy  of  a  larger  trial.  Fairfax  had  a  great  tract  of  land  in 
the  Shenandoah  valley  extending  over  the  Blue  Ridge  into 
what  is  now  West  Virginia.  This  property,  in  1748,  he  sent 
Washington  to  survey.  It  was  a  task  which  would  test  the 
mettle  of  most  men,  but  the  sixteen-year-old  boy  proved 
equal  to  the  trust.  In  company  with  George  Fairfax  and  a 
few  assistants,  he  started  for  the  Shenandoah.  Their  life  in 
the  wilderness  for  the  next  few  weeks  was  crowded  with  hard 


SURVEYOR  43 

work  and  with  adventure.  They  usually  slept  in  the  open 
air  or  in  tents,  and  for  food  they  depended  largely  on  hunting. 

At  one  time,  they  fell  in  with  a  party  of  Indians,  and  at 
night,  around  the  camp  fire,  they  watched  the  weird  dances 
of  the  red  men.  For  food,  they  had  the  trout  which  they 
caught  in  the  mountain  brooks  and  the  game  with  which 
the  forest  abounded.  What  a  charm  this  woods  life  had  for 
them,  only  boys  who  have  tasted  the  joys  of  camping  out  can 
fully  realize.  Washington,  in  after  years,  referred  to  these 
experiences  as  the  happiest  moments  in  his  life.  When  the 
little  expedition  returned  to  civilization,  Lord  Fairfax  was 
so  well  pleased  with  the  skillful  manner  in  which  Washing- 
ton had  done  his  work  that  he  obtained  for  him  an  appoint- 
ment as  public  surveyor  of  Culpeper  County. 

The  next  three  years  were  passed  in  the  practice  of  his 
profession.    His  home  was  now  at  Mount  Vernon,  but  much 


* 

.?**•*- 


i r 


Greenway  Court 


44  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

of  his  time  was  spent  with  his  friend  Lord  Fairfax  at  Green- 
way  Court.  This  was  a  wilderness  home  which  the  noble- 
man, charmed  with  the  beauty  of  the  country  which  Wash- 
ington surveyed,  had  built  in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  near 
where  Winchester  now  stands. 

During  this  time,  Lawrence  Washington's  health  failed,  and 
with  the  hope  that  a  sea  voyage  would  prove  beneficial,  he 
took  George,  his  favorite  brother,  on  a  trip  to  the  West  Indies. 
The  voyage,  however,  proved  of  no  avail,  and  in  1752  Law- 
rence died,  leaving  his  daughter  in  charge  of  George  as  her 
guardian.  She  lived  only  a  short  time  after,  and  George,  by 
a  provision  of  his  brother's  will,  became  the  owner  of  the  great 
plantation  at  Mount  Vernon. 

He  might  now  have  settled  down  to  a  life  of  ease,  but  the 
country  was  on  the  verge  of  a  great  war  jn  which  he  was 
destined  to  be  a  conspicuous  figure. 

For  over  a  century  the  settlements  of  the  English  in 
America  had  been  confined  to  a  narrow  strip  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  extending  back  less  than  two  hundred 
miles.  The  French  in  Canada  had  occupied  the  St.  Law- 
rence valley,  and  their  priests  and  traders  had  boldly  explored 
the  western  country.  There  they  had  established  forts  and 
trading  posts  along  the  Great  Lakes  and  down  the  Mississippi 
River. 

Both  peoples  were  attracted  by  the  reports  of  the  fertil- 
ity and  beauty  of  the  Ohio  valley.  Virginia  laid  claim  to 
this  country  under  the  provisions  of  its  royal  charter,  and 
a  company  of  Virginia  gentlemen,  under  the  name  of  the 
Ohio  Company,  was  formed  to  make  settlements  in  this 
valley.  But  the  French,  also  realizing  its  value,  were  pre- 
paring to  take  and  hold  possession  by  the  establishment  of  a 
chain  of  forts  extending  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Mississippi 


MISSION    TO   OHIO   VALLEY 


45 


River.  Three  of  these  forts  were  already  built:  one  at 
Presque  Isle,  now  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  another  called  Fort 
Le  Bceuf,  where  Waterford, 
Pennsylvania,  is  now  situ- 
ated; and  an  outpost  at 
Venango,  now  the  site  of 
Franklin,  Pennsylvania.  It 
was  seen  at  once  by  the  Vir- 
ginians that  decisive  steps 
must  be  taken  to  enforce 
their  claim  to  the  Ohio  val- 
ley. Some  one  must  be  sent 
there  to  find  out  what  the 
plans  of  the  French  were, 
and  to  win  the  friendship 
of  the  Indians.  The  man 
chosen  must  be  fearless, 
tactful,  and  an  expert 
woodsman.  So  it  is  not 
strange  that  Washington, 
then  only  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  was  chosen  for  this 
difficult  and  dangerous  un- 
dertaking. 


20      30     40      50 


- 


Early  Forts  in  the  Ohio  Valley 


In  October  of  1753,  armed  with  a  letter  from  Governor 
Dinwiddie  of  Virginia  to  the  French  commander  at  Fort  Le 
Bceuf,  he  started  on  his  ^mission.  With  him  were  his  old 
fencing  master,  Jacob  Van  Braam,  and  Christopher  Gist,  a 
famous  frontier  guide.  They  had  also  four  Indian  traders 
and  servants.  The  journey  of  500  miles  over  the  mountains 
and  through  the  trackless  forests  was  attended  with  many 
dangers,  but  at  last  the  little  company  reached  the  French 


46 


GEORGE   WASHINGTON 


fort.  The  officers  received  them  cordially,  but  frankly  said 
to  Washington  that  they  could  not  abandon  the  country 
which  the  Virginians  claimed. 

After  a  few  days'  rest,  Washington  and  his  companions 
started  on  their  return  journey.  Winter  had  already  set 
in,  and  the  rivers  were  swollen  with  ice.     In  his  eagerness  to 

reach  home,  Wash- 
ington left  the  others 
to  follow  more  slow- 
ly, and,  with  Gist, 
pushed  on  ahead.  In 
the  diary  which  he 
kept,  he  tells  of  the 
difficulties  they  met. 
One  day  an  Indian, 
who  seemed  to  be 
friendly,  suddenly 
shot  at  the  two 
men,  but  fortunately 
missed,  so  they  dis- 
armed him  and  let 
him  go.  Coming  to 
one  river  which  they 
could  not  ford,  Wash- 
ington says,  "There 
was  no  way  of  getting  over  but  on  a  Raft  which  we  set  about 
with  but  one  poor  hatchet  and  finished  just  after  Sunsetting. 
Before  we  were  half  way  over  we  were  jammed  in  the  Ice. 
The  Rapidity  of  the  Stream  jerked  me  out  into  ten  feet  of 
Water  but  I  saved  myself  by  catching  hold  of  one  of  the  logs." 
The  current  was  so  strong  that  they  could  not  bring  the  raft  to 
shore  but  were  obliged  to  abandon  it  and  swim  to  an  island. 


Washington  thrown  from  the  Raft 


FRENCH   AND    INDIAN    WAR 


47 


Here  they  stayed  all  night,  suffering  greatly  from  the  intense 
cold.  The  next  morning  the  river  had  frozen  over  so  that 
they  walked  to  the  other  shore.  After  many  clays  of  hard- 
ship and  danger  and  treachery,  they  came  safely  home  to 
Virginia,  and  on  the  16th  of  January,  1754,  Washington 
reported  the  result  of  his  mission  to  Governor  Dinwiddie. 

Immediately  Vir- 
ginia prepared  for 
war.  Troops  were 
mustered,  and  a 
company  of  men  was 
sent  forward  to  build 
a  fort  at  the  point 
where  the  Mononga- 
hela  and  Allegheny 
Rivers  meet  and  form 
the  Ohio.  Washing- 
ton followed  soon 
after  with  two  com- 
panies, and  in  a  skir- 
mish near  a  place 
known  as  Great 
Meadows,  surprised 
and  defeated  a  small 
force      of      French. 

Leaving   a    few    men  Washington  as  a  Young  Man 

at  Great  Meadows,  he  then  pushed  forward  to  a  settlement 
which  had  been  made  by  his  old  guide  Christopher  Gist,  cut- 
ting a  wagon  road  through  the  woods  as  he  went.  But  the 
French,  in  the  meantime,  had  driven  off  the  English  at  the 
headwaters  of  the  Ohio  and  had  built  there  a  fort  which 
they  named  Fort  Duquesne.     Washington,  hearing  that  the 


48  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

French  were  advancing  from  this  fort,  fell  back  to  Great 
Meadows,  and  hastily  threw  up  a  rough  stockade  which  he 
called  Fort  Necessity.  Here  he  was  attacked  by  a  force 
greatly  outnumbering  his  own,  and,  after  a  brave  fight  lasting 
nine  hours,  was  forced  to  surrender.  With  all  the  honors 
of  war,  the  Virginia  troops  were  allowed  to  march  out  of  the 
fort  and  to  return  to  their  homes.  Washington,  in  writing  to 
his  brother  about  one  of  these  skirmishes,  said,  "  I  heard  the 
bullets  whistle,  and  believe  me,  there  is  something  charming 
in  the  sound."  The  English  king,  George  II,  upon  hearing 
this  remark,  laughed  and  said  that  Washington  would  not 
have  said  so  if  he  had  been  used  to  hearing  many. 

The  war,  known  in  history  as  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
which  was  to  decide  whether  the  French  or  the  English  were 
to  have  America,  now  began  in  bitter  earnest.  The  English 
government  was  roused  to  action  and  sent  over  regiments  of 
regular  troops  to  assist  the  colonies.  There  were  five  strong- 
holds of  the  French  in  America  which  the  English  wished  to 
take.  One  of  these  was  Fort  Duquesne,  and  against  it,  in 
the  early  summer  of  1755,  marched  General  Braddock  in 
command  of  2000  colonial  troops  and  regulars. 

Braddock  was  a  gallant  soldier,  but  his  training  had  been 
on  European  battlefields,  and  he  had  contempt  for  the  colo- 
nial militia.  Colonel  Washington,  who  was  a  member  of  his 
staff  of  officers,  warned  him  that  warfare  in  the  forests  and 
against  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies  was  very  different 
from  what  he  had  experienced,  but  he  stubbornly  refused  to 
listen  to  the  young  man.  The  little  army  had  nearly  reached 
Fort  Duquesne  and  was  marching  with  banners  gayly  flying 
and  with  fife  and  drum  playing,  when  the  French  and  Indians 
suddenly  fell  upon  them.  The  colonial  troops,  used  to  this 
kind  of  warfare,  immediately  sprang  behind  trees,  but  the 


FRENCH   AND   INDIAN    WAR 


49 


regulars,  drawn  up  in  battle  line,  fired  helplessly  at  an 
unseen  foe.  Braddock,  storming  up  and  down  the  line, 
tried  to  rally  his  disordered  troops,  but  failed  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded.  Washington  seemed  to  bear  a  charmed  life; 
two  horses  were  shot  under  him  and  four  bullets  tore  through 
his  coat,  but  he  escaped  unharmed  and,  with  his  militia, 
covered  the  retreat  of  the  army. 

After  this  disastrous  defeat,  Washington  was  placed  in 


Fort  Duquesne 

command  of  the  Virginia  troops,  and  in  1758  took  part  in 
another  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne.  This  time  the 
fortunes  of  war  were  with  the  English,  for  the  tide  had  turned 
against  the  French  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Before  the 
English  reached  Duquesne,  the  French  abandoned  and  burned 
the  defenses.  On  its  ruins  the  English  rebuilt  the  fort  and 
named  it  Pitt  in  honor  of  the  great  Prime  Minister  of  Eng- 
land. At  that  place  is  now  the  great  manufacturing  and 
commercial  city  of  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. 

As  the  war  was  now  practically  over,  Washington  returned 


MAK.   &  DEF.- 


50  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

to  Mount  Vernon  and  resumed  the  life  of  a  Virginia  planter 
and  gentleman.  In  the  summer  of  1758  he  had  met  and  won 
Martha  Custis,  a  beautiful  and  wealthy  young  widow,  and 
on  January  6,  1759,  they  were  married.  Their  spacious 
home  on  the  Potomac,  under  the  direction  of  its  charming 
mistress,  soon  became  a  center  in  the  social  life  of  the  neigh- 
borhood. For  the  next  few  years  its  generous  hospitality  and 
its  quiet  comfort  made  it  famous.  Here  Washington  lived 
until  his  country's  need  called  him  again  into  public  service. 

Topical  Outline.  —  George  Washington:  boyhood  and  youth.  Life  at 
Mount  Vernon;  friends  and  occupations.  The  French  in  the  Ohio  val- 
ley. Washington's  journey  to  the  French  forts.  His  share  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War.    His  marriage. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following 
topics:  George  Washington's  school  days,  his  friendship  with  Lord 
Fairfax,  his  games  and  sports.  II.  Imagine  yourself  a  companion  of 
Washington  on  the  trip  to  the  French  forts.  Tell  the  story  of  your  ad- 
ventures on  the  journey.  III.  Write  from  memory  some  of  Washing- 
ton's rules  of  conduct.  IV.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  French  and 
Indian  War.    Tell  why  the  possession  of  Fort  Duquesne  was  important. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Fredericksburg,  Mount  Vernon  (p.  60),  Alle- 
gheny and  Monongahela  Rivers,  Presque  Isle,  Fort  Le  Bceuf,  Venango, 
Fort  Duquesne,  Fort  Necessity. 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON  —  SOLDIER  AND 
STATESMAN 


■  >v  ••' 


,:'a  '•:?. ;;„ 


Mount  Vernon 

In  colonial  Virginia  there  were  no  large  cities.  Its  great 
rivers  had  no  falls  to  develop  water  power  for  the  mills 
around  which  villages  might  cluster.  Its  lands  were  fertile, 
and  the  colonists  were,  for  the  most  part,  busied  with  the 
raising  of  grain  and  tobacco.  So  great  estates  grew  up  along 
the  shores  of  broad  tidal  rivers  like  the  James,  the  York,  and 
the  Potomac.  Each  of  these  estates  had  its  owner's  mansion, 
built  of  wood  or  brick,  with  broad  halls  and  wide  verandas, 
its  quarters  for  the  servants  and  slaves,  its  workshops  and 
its  barns,  so  that  each  plantation  was  a  little  village  in  itself. 

5i 


52 


GEORGE    WASHINGTON 


To  one  of  these  fine  old  Virginia  homes,  in  1759,  Wash- 
ington brought  his  young  bride.  Most  of  us  have  seen 
pictures  of  Mount  Vernon,  but  they  cannot  do  justice  to  the 
beauty  of  its  location.  Situated  on  the  summit  of  a  small 
hill,  with  its  green  lawns  gently  sloping  to  the  river,  it  com- 
manded a  fine  view  of  the  Potomac.  Stretching  away  on 
either  side  were  the  broad  acres  and  the  forests  of  the  estate, 
a  scene  of  contentment  and  of  comfort  to  gladden  the  heart 
of  the  young  man  fresh  from  the  hardships  of  Indian  wars. 

Washington  loved 
his  home  and  its 
quiet  country  life, 
and  here  he  now  had 
his  first  chance  for 
rest  and  retirement 
since  his  early  boy- 
hood days.  The  es- 
tate and  the  consider- 
able property  which 
his  wife  had  brought 
him,  required  careful 
supervision.  Rising 
early,  he  would  visit 
his  farms  on  horse- 
back, directing  his 
overseers  where  fields 
were  to  be  plowed  or 
cultivated,  and  where 
„    .    w   ..    ,  forests    were    to    be 

Martha  Washington 

cleared.  Often,  in 
the  afternoon,  he  would  join  his  neighbors  in  fox  hunting 
or  in  shooting  canvasback  ducks  on  the  Potomac,  and  the 


CAUSES  OF    THE   REVOLUTION  53 

sport  would  frequently  end  with  a  hunt  supper  at  one  of  the 
homes. 

He  was  one  of  the  wealthy  men  of  the  colony,  and  his 
intimate  friends  were  among  its  leaders.  These  he  would 
entertain  with  gracious  hospitality  at  Mount  Vernon,  and  he 
would  return  their  visits  by  trips  to  their  estates.  We  can  see 
him  now  as  he  starts  out  with  his  wife  for  these  visits  of 
state  —  Mrs.  Washington  in  her  coach  and  four,  with  the 
driver  and  servants  in  livery,  while  her  husband  rode  on 
horseback  at  the  side  of  the  coach. 

So  the  quiet  years  passed,  broken  only  by  an  occasional  visit 
to  the  colonial  capital,  to  perform  his  duties  as  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses.  These  years  were  years  of  growth  of 
character  and  of  strict  attention  to  his  business.  He  became 
the  most  successful  planter  in  the  colony.  He  kept  his  own 
account  books  and  personally  directed  the  planting  and  the 
harvesting  of  his  crops.  It  is  said  that  the  quality  of  the 
tobacco  and  flour  which  was  shipped  abroad  bearing  the 
brand  "George  Washington,  Mount  Vernon"  was  so  well 
known  that  the  customs  inspectors  passed  it  without  exami- 
nation. Although  he  held  slaves,  he  treated  them  kindly  and 
never  sold  them. 

During  the  years  when  Washington  was  quietly  living  at 
Mount  Vernon,  the  troubles  between  England  and  her  Ameri- 
can colonies  were  rapidly  reaching  a  crisis.  What  these  un- 
just demands  and  exactions  of  the  mother  country  were,  you 
have  already  learned  in  your  study  of  the  lives  of  Samuel 
Adams  and  of  Patrick  Henry.  A  congress  of  the  colonies 
was  held  in  Philadelphia  in  1774,  and  Washington  was  sent 
to  it  as  a  delegate  from  Virginia.  Patrick  Henry,  who  was 
also  a  member  of  the  congress,  when  asked  who  was  the 
greatest  man  there,  said:   "If  you  speak  of  eloquence,  Mr. 


54  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

Rutledge  is  by  far  the  greatest  orator;  but  if  you  speak  of 
solid  information  and  sound  judgment,  Colonel  Washington 
is  undoubtedly  the  greatest  man  on  that  floor." 

When  the  Second  Continental  Congress  met,  May  10, 1775, 
also  in  Philadelphia,  the  time  for  a  peaceful  settlement  of  the 
issues  between  England  and  the  colonies  had  passed.  The 
battle  of  Lexington  had  been  fought  and  American  blood 
shed.  Washington  was  again  a  delegate  from  Virginia  to 
this  Congress,  and  was  at  once  chosen  commander  in  chief  of 
all  the  Continental  forces.  Perhaps  he  was  the  only  man  on 
whom  Congress  could  unanimously  agree,  for,  since  the 
French  and  Indian  War,  he  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
military  leader  in  America.  Notwithstanding  his  fitness  for 
the  place,  he  modestly  questioned  his  own  worth.  In  his 
reply  to  the  appointment,  Washington  said:  "Though  I  am 
truly  sensitive  of  the  high  honor  done  me  in  this  appointment, 
yet  I  feel  great  distress  from  a  consciousness  that  my  abilities 
may  not  be  equal  to  the  trust."  As  a  condition  of  acceptance, 
he  refused  to  receive  any  pay  for  his  services  except  for  his 
personal  expenses,  of  which  he  kept  an  exact  account  and 
for  which  he  was  afterwards  repaid.  This,  it  may  be  noted, 
was  all  he  asked  in  after  years  when  he  became  Presi- 
dent. 

The  little  army  which  General  Washington  was  to  com- 
mand was  stationed  around  Boston,  so  he  at  once  set  out 
from  Philadelphia  for  that  city.  While  he  was  on  the  journey, 
news  was  brought  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  Washington, 
upon  hearing  the  story  of  that  gallant  fight,  and  learning  that 
the  militia  had  repulsed  the  attacks  of  the  British  regulars, 
until  their  powder  and  shot  were  gone,  exclaimed:  "Thank 
God,  the  liberties  of  the  country  are  safe."  On  July  2, 1775,  he 
reached  Cambridge,  just  outside  of  Boston,  and  took  com- 


THE    REVOLUTION 


55 


mand  of  the  colonial  troops.  The  elm  tree  under  which  he 
reviewed  the  army  on  the  next  day  is  still  standing,  and  is 
called  the  Washington  Elm.  He  established  his  headquar- 
ters in  the  Craigie  homestead,  a  fine  old  colonial  mansion 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  poet  Longfellow. 

It  was  a  poorly  equipped  body  of  men  that  Washington 


Washington  takes  Command  of  the  Continental  Army 

had  to  command.  Most  of  them  were  without  uniforms,  and 
many  had  no  guns.  They  were  unused  to  discipline,  and 
were  enlisted  for  short  terms.  Supplies  were  low,  and  there 
was  constant  danger  of  attack  from  the  British,  who  were 
encamped  across  the  river  in  the  city  of  Boston.  His  first 
task  was  to  make  a  disciplined  army  out  of  these  raw  recruits. 
So  the  summer  and  fall  were  spent  in  drilling  the  men  and 
in  gathering  supplies. 


56  GEORGE  WASHINGTON 

The  material  most  needed  was  powder  and  cannon.  For- 
tunately Ethan  Allen  and  his  band  of  "  Green  Mountain 
boys,"  had,  in  the  early  summer,  by  a  bold  stroke,  captured 
the  English  forts  at  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga.  These 
forts  were  well  stored  with  arms  and  ammunition,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  winter  their  cannon  and  other  needed  supplies 
were  drawn  on  ox  sleds  to  Washington's  camp. 

With  his  men  armed,  equipped,  and  trained,  Washington 
was  now  ready  to  begin  active  warfare.  Planting  his  cannon 
behind  breastworks  on  the  heights  about  Boston,  he  soon  made 
the  British  position  in  that  city  difficult  to  hold,  and  on 
March  17,  1776,  the  enemy  were  forced  to  abandon  the  city. 
In  their  haste,  the  English  left  behind  much  valuable  material 
of  war  with  which  Washington  was  better  able  to  equip  his 
army.  The  British  troops  sailed  away  to  Halifax,  but  King 
George  III  and  his  advisers  were  already  planning  to  attack 
New  York.  Suspecting  this,  Washington  withdrew  his  troops 
to  that  city  to  prepare  for  its  defense. 

Meanwhile  the  breach  between  England  and  America 
rapidly  widened.  Petitions  to  the  king  and  protests  to 
Parliament  having  failed,  all  hope  of  reconciliation  seemed 
to  vanish.  So  the  Continental  Congress  took  a  decisive  step, 
and  in  June,  1776,  appointed  a  committee  to  draft  a  state- 
ment of  the  colonists'  wrongs  and  a  declaration  of  their 
liberties.  This  committee,  of  which  Thomas  Jefferson  was 
chairman,  reported  to  Congress,  and  on  July  4,  1776,  the 
delegates  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY 

At  the  very  time  when  the  Congress  was  proclaiming  the 
colonies  to  be  a  free  and  independent  nation,  the  English 


CAMPAIGN   IN   NEW    YORK 


57 


-Route  of  American  Army 
-    "       "   British  Army 

sou  or  MILES 

— ? — ' — ' 


forces  under  General  Howe  were  gathering  on  Staten  Island 
ready  to  attack  New  York. 

Washington  had  less  than  18,000  men  with  which  to  pro- 
tect the  city.  If  you 
will  look  at  a  map  of 
the  city  and  the  coun- 
try surrounding  it,  you 
will  see  that  the  Eng- 
lish from  their  location 
on  Staten  Island  could 
strike  a  decisive  blow 
at  any  one  spot  of  the 
American  line  of  de- 
fenses before  Wash- 
ington could  mass 
enough  troops  to 
strengthen  it. 

Long  Island  was  de- 
fended by  three  forts 
on  the  "Heights," 
nearest  Manhattan, 
and  by  the  "Line  of 
Defense "  from  the 
Wallabout  to  Gowan- 


Vicinity  of  New  York 


us.  This  line  was  a  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  and  in  it  was 
the  star-shaped  fort  located  where  the  Martyrs'  Monument 
now  is  in  Fort  Greene  Park.  Part  of  the  Patriot  forces  held 
these  defenses,  while  Washington  and  the  main  army  re- 
mained on  Manhattan.  But  Howe  did  not,  as  was  expected, 
attack  New  York  directly.  Instead,  with  considerable  de- 
liberation, he  began  on  August  22  to  land  troops  on  Long 
Island  near  Bath  Beach.     When  word  reached  the  Ameri- 


58  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

cans  to  this  effect,  reinforcements  were  brought  over  from 
Manhattan,  and  men  were  sent  out  beyond  the  defenses  to 
guard  the  three  great  highways  crossing  the  ridge.  The 
Flatbush  Pass  was  the  only  one  defended  by  fieldworks;  at 
East  New  York,  about  where  Jamaica  Avenue  now  passes 
the  entrance  to  Evergreen  Cemetery,  only  five  young  men 
were  stationed. 

As  the  British  landed,  they  spread  rapidly  over  the  plains 
from  New  Utrecht  and  Gravesend  to  Flatbush.  On  Au- 
gust 27  simultaneous  attacks  were  ordered  by  the  British  on 
the  Americans  at  Flatbush  Pass  and  on  the  Coast  Road  to 
the  west,  while  other  troops  were  sent  around  to  East  New 
York,  and  after  capturing  the  outpost  stationed  on  the  Ja- 
maica Road,  came  around  on  the  American  rear.  There  is  a 
bit  of  humor  in  the  fact  that  Cornwallis,  Clinton,  Percy,  and 
several  other  less  famous  officers  with  at  least  eight  hun- 
dred men,  captured  those  five  boys  stationed  at  the  Jamaica 
Pass. 

Some  of  the  most  terrible  fighting  of  the  war  was  on  the 
field  stretching  from  Battle  Pass,  now  in  Greenwood  Ceme- 
tery, to  Battle  Hill,  now  in  Prospect  Park.  Both  places  are 
appropriately  marked,  but  at  Battle  Hill  is  a  fine  monument 
to  the  memory  of  the  Maryland  troops  that  fell  there  on 
August  28.  The  next  day  was  hot  and  rainy,  and  neither 
side  attempted  to  renew  the  battle.  The  capture  of  the 
entire  Long  Island  division  of  the  American  army  now  seemed 
certain,  but  General  Howe  had  a  habit  of  putting  off  things, 
and  failed  to  follow  up  the  victory  he  had  won.  While  he 
waited,  Washington  seized  all  the  boats  on  the  Brooklyn 
side  of  the  East  River,  and  on  the  night  of  the  29th,  aided 
by  a  dense  fog  which  concealed  the  movements  of  the  army, 
he  safely  carried  across  to  Manhattan  nearly  10,000  men.    By 


CAMPAIGN   IN   NEW   YORK 


59 


this  masterly  retreat,  Washington  saved  his  army.  Although 
he  had  been  forty-eight  hours  with  scarcely  time  for  food  or  for 
rest,  he  directed  that  retreat  in  person,  and  when  in  the  gray 


Retreating  from  Brooklyn 

dawn  he  embarked  with  the  last  boat  load  of  soldiers,  he  must 
have  breathed  a  sigh  of  relief  at  so  shrewdly  outwitting  the 
British. 

Two  weeks  later,  on  September  15,  the  British  crossed  the 
East  River  and  landed  at  Kip's  Bay,  at  what  is  now  the  foot  of 
East  Thirty-sixth  Street,  with  little  opposition.  They  moved 
north  and  attacked  Washington's  position  at  Harlem  Heights. 
Although  the  Patriots  pushed  the  British  line  back,  they  knew 
that  they  could  not  long  hold  their  position,  for  tin-  British 
boats  could  enter  the  Harlem  River  and  land  troops  in  their 
rear.  So  it  was  decided  to  cross  over  into  Westchester  County. 
For  the  next  two  months  Washington  slowly  retreated  north- 


il 


12 


10 


12 


Norfol 


Vj,JjDORTHER>T  COIOMES 

DURING  THE 

REVOLUTION 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


Longitude 


0         25 


*L 


West 


50        75       100 

L.t.P0*TeS,  ENGfl.,  N.Y. 

71 


^t"!iflh?« 


10 


Wpehav  ken  •f^yv^r  r?  a  _^o 


r4     /Tot-,  I        Nei-York     Q 
.**/«'  C  >"       ;  'Brooklyn  ^ 


38 


from 


Greenwich 


CAMPAIGN  IN  NEW  JERSEY  6 1 

ward,  never  risking  a  general  engagement  because  of  the 
superior  strength  of  the  enemy,  but  forcing  them  to  fight  for 
every  foot  of  ground  they  took.  At  White  Plains,  the  two 
armies  again  met.  Soon  after,  with  part  of  his  army,  Wash- 
ington crossed  the  Hudson  River  and  retired  into  New 
Jersey. 

The  Patriots  had  fortified  two  positions  on  either  side  of 
the  Hudson  above  the  city  of  New  York,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  English  fleet  from  passing  up  the  river.  Fort 
Washington  on  the  eastern  bank  was  captured  by  General 
Howe,  and  the  Patriots  were  forced  soon  after  to  abandon 
Fort  Lee  on  the  western  shore.  Then  followed  Washington's 
memorable  retreat  across  New  Jersey. 

The  English,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Cornwallis, 
pressed  so  closely  upon  the  Americans  that  at  times  the 
armies  were  in  sight  of  each  other.  Washington,  however, 
by  burning  bridges  and  by  blocking  the  roads,  managed  to 
keep  out  of  reach  of  the  pursuing  enemy.  At  last,  reaching 
the  Delaware  River  and  collecting  all  the  boats  in  the  vicinity, 
he  crossed  over  into  Pennsylvania.  A  few  hours  later,  the 
British  came  marching  down  to  the  river,  but,  having  no 
boats,  were  forced  to  encamp  and  wait  until  the  river  had 
frozen.  Cornwallis  was  so  certain  that  he  now  had  Wash- 
ington at  his  mercy  that,  leaving  his  army  in  camp,  he 
returned  to  New  York  for  the  Christmas  holidays. 

The  affairs  of  the  Americans  were  at  a  low  ebb.  During 
the  retreat  across  New  Jersey,  Washington  had  lost  thousands 
of  men  by  desertion  and  by  the  ending  of  their  terms  of  enlist- 
ment. Seemingly,  the  whole  country  was  discouraged,  but 
its  great-hearted  leader  never  gave  up  hope.  He  knew  that 
if  he  could  strike  a  successful  blow  at  the  British,  faith  in  him 
and  in  his  army  would  be  restored.     The  opportunity  soon 


62 


GEORGE   WASHINGTON 


came,  for  the  English,  careless  and  confident  of  victory,  were 
loosely  guarding  their  lines. 

At  Trenton  a  detachment  of  Hessians  were  stationed. 
These  Hessians  were  German  soldiers  whom  King  George 
had  hired  to  fight  for  him,  and  they  were  especially  hated  by 
the  Americans.  So  Washington  determined  if  possible  to 
capture  them.     Plans  for  the  attack  were  carefully  made,  and 


/* 

i$M 

gBggSatesns^ 

E             ^PM 

"'P^^gg 

)Linp  ■  -  ■            .  ^f 

^■H^H  WKK--' '  ■ 

-   ^Mi 

Wmk*-,'-  ^"-- 

5> 

*l^ 

* 

^Hr            .%>-                v 
v^J 

Washington  crossing  the  Delaware 

on  Christmas  night,  with  a  body  of  picked  men,  he  crossed 
the  Delaware. 

The  river  was  full  of  floating  ice,  the  current  was  strong, 
and  the  weather  was  bitterly  cold,  but  the  brave  general  was 
fortunate  in  having,  in  the  force  he  had  selected,  a  regiment 
of  New  England  fishermen  used  to  handling  boats,  so  the 
crossing  was  safely  made.  As  the  men  started  on  their  march 
toward  Trenton,  nine  miles  away,  the  storm  increased  in 
fury.     Sleet  and  snow  were  driven  in  the  faces  of  the  weary 


CAMPAIGN    IN   NEW   JERSEY  63 

soldiers  as  they  advanced,  and  two  men  were  frozen  to  death 
by  the  bitter  cold.  It  was  after  daybreak  when  they  reached 
the  enemy's  camp,  but  the  surprise  was  complete,  and  Wash- 
ington captured  a  thousand  Hessians. 

This  victory,  and  Washington's  further  operations  in  New 
Jersey,  aroused  Cornwallis  to  action.  He  again  took  the 
field,  determined,  as  he  said,  "to  finish  the  business  up." 
Leaving  three  regiments  at  Princeton,  with  the  rest  of  his 
army  he  drove  Washington  back  to  the  Delaware.  "At 
last  we  have  the  old  Fox  bagged,"  said  the  British  general, 
but  Washington  was  not  to  be  so  easily  caught.  During  the 
night,  leaving  his  camp  fires  brightly  burning  and  sentinels 
on  guard  to  deceive  the  enemy,  Washington  slipped  around 
the  British  lines,  and  by  sunrise  fell  upon  and  defeated  the 
troops  stationed  at  Princeton.  This  second  victory,  follow- 
ing so  closely  upon  the  one  at  Trenton,  greatly  encouraged 
the  Americans.  Active  campaigning  now  ceased,  and  Wash- 
ington went  into  winter  quarters  on  the  heights  above  Morris- 
town,  where  his  position  was  so  strongly  fortified  as  to  be 
secure  from  attack. 

Of  this  campaign,  a  great  German  general  has  said  that 
no  finer  military  movement  was  ever  executed  than  the  re- 
treat through  New  Jersey  and  the  return  across  the  Dela- 
ware with  its  victories  at  Trenton  and  at  Princeton. 

Wc  must  not  close  our  story  of  this  part  of  the  war,  however, 
without  mentioning  the  name  of  Robert  Morris,  a  patriot 
banker  of  Philadelphia.  He  pledged  his  own  fortune  and 
induced  his  Quaker  friends  to  give  money  for  the  support  of 
the  army.  The  timely  receipt  of  these  funds  made  it  pos- 
sible for  Washington  to  reenlist  the  soldiers  whose  terms  of 
service  were  about  to  expire.  Without  these  soldiers  victory 
would  have  been  impossible. 


64  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

THE   CAMPAIGN   IN   PENNSYLVANIA 

The  English  king  and  his  advisers  now  saw  that  their  war 
with  the  despised  colonists  was  more  serious  than  they  had  at 
first  expected.  Plans  were  made  in  London  early  in  1777 
for  a  threefold  movement  of  the  British  troops.  The  colony 
of  New  York  was  to  be  the  center  of  attack.  The  king 
thought  that  by  getting  possession  of  the  Hudson  valley  he 
could  separate  the  rebellious  New  Englanders  from  the  rest 
of  the  colonies.  In  this  way,  by  dividing  the  American 
strength,  he  could  more  readily  crush  the  rebellion.  Accord- 
ingly General  Burgoyne  was  to  come  south  along  the  Cham- 
plain  route  from  Canada;  St.  Leger,  from  Oswego,  was  to 
advance  eastward  through  the  Mohawk  valley,  and  join 
Burgoyne  at  Albany;  while  Howe  was  to  send  reinforcements 
up  the  Hudson  to  meet  the  united  armies.  It  was  a  beautiful 
scheme  on  paper;  how  poorly  Burgoyne's  and  St.  Leger's 
parts  in  it  worked  out,  we  shall  read  in  another  chapter.  Here 
we  are  interested  in  knowing  about  Washington's  share  in 
checkmating  the  British  game. 

Washington  saw  that  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  keep 
Howe  so  busy  that  no  troops  could  be  sent  north.  In  order 
to  do  this,  he  pretended  to  strike  at  New  York,  then  in  the 
hands  of  the  English.  Howe  retaliated  by  beginning  opera- 
tions against  Philadelphia.  He  at  first  tried  to  march  his 
army  across  New  Jersey,  but  Washington  blocked  the  way 
so  effectually  that  he  returned  to  New  York.  Leaving  a 
garrison  to  guard  that  city,  Howe  with  his  fleet  and  18,000  men 
then  set  sail  for  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  Continental  army 
at  once  marched  southward  to  check  the  British  advance. 

It  was  while  they  were  passing  through  Philadelphia,  that 
Washington   first   met    the   Marquis   de   Lafayette.     This 


CAMPAIGN    IN   PENNSYLVANIA  65 

young  French  nobleman  was  an  ardent  lover  of  liberty,  who 
had  fitted  out  a  vessel  at  his  own  expense  and  had  sailed  to 
America  to  offer  his  services.  His  Life  and  his  fortune  he 
freely  risked  to  aid  the  colonists.  Congress  made  him  a 
major  general,  and  Washington,  when  he  came  to  know 
Lafayette's  fine  nature,  loved  and  trusted  him  as  a  son. 

It  was  late  in  August,  when  Howe  landed  his  troops  at  the 
head  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  Between  him  and  Philadelphia 
lay  Washington  with  n,ooo  men  ready  to  contest  every 
foot  of  the  way.  On  the  nth  of  September,  the  two  armies 
met  at  Chads  Ford  on  Brandywine  Creek,  and  Washington 
was  driven  back.  He  fought  and  marched  so  skillfully,  how- 
ever, that  it  took  Howe  two  weeks  to  advance  the  remaining 
twenty-six  miles  and  capture  Philadelphia.  Another  battle 
in  October,  at  Germantown,  a  suburb  of  the  city,  nearly 
resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  Americans.  But  a  dense  fog 
concealed  the  movements  of  the  troops,  and  in  the  confusion 
the  Americans  fired  on  one  another  and  the  day  was  lost. 

It  was  now  too  late  for  Howe  to  send  aid  to  Burgoyne,  so  he 
established  his  army  in  Philadelphia,  while  Washington  went 
into  winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  heavy  wooded  heights 
on  the  Schuylkill  River  twenty  miles  away.  Meanwhile,  in 
the  north,  St.  Leger  had  been  driven  back  at  Oriskany,  and 
Burgoyne  had  surrendered  at  Saratoga.  These  American 
victories  more  than  compensated  for  the  loss  of  Philadelphia, 
for  they  won  for  the  colonies  the  friendship  and  support  of 
France.  Washington's  campaigns  during  the  summer  and 
fall  of  1777  had,  in  a  great  measure,  made  the  victory  at 
Saratoga  possible,  for  by  keeping  Howe  busy  he  had  pre- 
vented the  union  of  the  British  armies.  If  Howe  had  sent 
strong  reinforcements  up  the  Hudson,  it  is  hardly  probable 
that  the  British  campaign  in  the  north  would  have  failed. 


66 


GEORGE   WASHINGTON 


While  the  British  were  comfortably  occupying  Philadelphia 
during  the  winter  of  1 777-1 778,  Washington's  ragged  troops 
were  bravely  enduring  fearful  hardships  in  their  winter  camp 
at  Valley  Forge.  They  lived  in  log  huts  which  were  fairly 
warm,  but  they  were  ill-clothed  and  poorly  fed.  Thousands 
of  them  were  without  shoes,  and  when  they  gathered  fire- 
wood or  served  on  sentry  duty,  the  soldiers'  tracks  in  the  snow 


A  Scene  in  Camp  at  Valley  Forge 

were  sometimes  covered  with  blood.  Although  Washington's 
great  heart  ached  for  the  sufferings  of  his  men  in  this  dreadful 
winter,  he  never  lost  faith.  A  Prussian  officer,  Baron  Steu- 
ben, *  who  had  learned  the  art  of  war  from  Frederick  the 

1  After  the  Revolutionary  War  was  over,  Baron  Steuben  was  given,  as  a 
reward  for  his  services,  a  large  tract  of  land  in  central  New  York,  north  of 
the  Mohawk  River  at  Utica.  He  is  buried  near  the  village  of  Remsen  in 
Oneida  County. 


LATER   CAMPAIGNS  67 

Great,  now  joined  the  Americans.  His  services  to  the  army 
were  great,  for  he  was  a  master  of  military  tactics.  lie 
taught  the  soldiers  that  their  bayonets  were  good  for  some- 
thing more  than  to  toast  meat  over  the  tires,  and  he  thor- 
oughly drilled  and  disciplined  the  men. 

LATER   CAMPAIGNS 

At  last  the  long  winter  came  to  an  end  and  Washington 
was  again  ready  to  take  the  field.  General  Howe  had  been 
recalled  to  England,  and  General  Henry  Clinton  sent  over  to 
take  command  of  the  British  forces.  He  withdrew  his  troops 
from  Philadelphia  and  started  for  New  York.  Washington 
followed,  and  a  battle  was  fought  on  the  28th  of  June  at 
Monmouth,  New  Jersey.  The  Americans  might  have  won 
a  victory  here  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  treachery  of  General 
Charles  Lee. 

Lee  was  an  English  soldier  of  fortune  who  had  joined  the 
Continental  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  He  had  been 
rapidly  advanced  until  he  was  second  in  command  in  the 
patriot  army.  He  thought  he  ought  to  be  first,  and  he  had 
more  than  once  disregarded  or  disobeyed  Washington's  orders. 
Finally  he  began  to  treat  secretly  with  the  enemy.  At  Mon- 
mouth he  was  in  command  of  the  leading  division  of  the 
American  army,  and  ordered  a  retreat  before  the  battle  had 
fairly  commenced.  Washington,  riding  up  in  a  white-hot 
temper,  dismissed  Lee  from  the  command  and  rallied  his 
disordered  troops.  But  the  harm  had  already  been  done, 
and  the  British  safely  escaped  to  New  York. 

There  was  among  the  Americans  another  traitor  whose 
black  deed  of  dishonor  is  the  darkest  spot  in  the  history  of  the 
Revolution.  His  name  was  Benedict  Arnold,  and  he  had  a 
record  of  honorable  service  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  war. 

MAK.    &  DEF.  —  5 


68 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON 


Having  been  wounded  in  battle,  he  was  given  command  of 
Philadelphia  after  Clinton  left  that  city.  Here  he  incurred 
heavy  debts,  and  was  by  order  of  Congress  publicly  re- 
buked.    But  Washington    still    trusted    him    implicitly  and 

placed  him  in  com- 
mand of  West  Point, 
a  strongly  fortified 
position  on  the  Hud- 
son. This  fortress  he 
secretly  planned  to 
surrender  to  the  Brit- 
ish, but  the  plot  was 
discovered  through 
the  capture  of  Andre, 
a  British  officer  who 
came  within  the 
American  lines  to  ar- 
range the  plan  for 
carrying  out  the  sur- 
render of  the  fort. 
Arnold  escaped  and 
joined  the  enemy. 
Washington  was 
deeply  hurt  at  Ar- 
nold's treason.  He 
hardly  knew  whom  to  trust,  when  the  man  he  loved  had 
failed  him  so  utterly. 

There  were  no  more  great  campaigns  in  the  North,  for  the 
British  now  made  their  chief  attacks  on  the  Southern  colonies. 
In  the  Carolinas,  a  few  scattered  patriot  bands  under  the  able 
leadership  of  Morgan  and  Marion,  "the  Swamp  Fox,"  had 
carried  on  a  kind  of  border  warfare.     Gates  was  sent  there  to 


Arnold  and  Andre 


YORKTOWN   CAMPAIGN  69 

lead  the  American  forces,  but  he  failed  to  accomplish  any- 
thing. So  Nathanael  Greene,  next  to  Washington  the  greatest 
general  in  the  Continental  army,  was  placed  in  command.  He 
succeeded  in  inflicting  great  losses  on  Cornwallis's  army,  so 
that  Cornwallis  decided  to  abandon  the  Carolinas  and  to 
march  northward  into  Virginia.  There,  after  failing  to  bring 
on  a  battle  with  Lafayette,  he  fortified  himself  at  Yorktown, 
in  August,  1 781. 

Washington  saw  that  the  time  had  come  to  make  a  supreme 
effort  to  end  the  war.  A  powerful  fleet  under  the  command  of 
Count  de  Grasse,  sent  from  France  to  aid  us,  was  on  its  way 
to  the  Chesapeake.  Lafayette  with  a  small  army  of  Amer- 
icans was  facing  Cornwallis  in  Virginia.  Washington  with 
his  main  force  was  encamped  on  the  Hudson.  He  deter- 
mined to  move  his  army  secretly  and  rapidly  from  New  York 
to  Virginia,  a  distance  of  400  miles,  and  crush  the  British 
at  Yorktown. 

In  anticipation  of  such  a  campaign,  a  French  army  sta- 
tioned in  Rhode  Island  joined  Washington's  forces  on  the 
Hudson,  in  July,  1781.  The  British  general  in  New  York 
supposed  these  troops  were  being  gathered  to  attack  his  posi- 
tion in  that  city.  In  order  to  strengthen  this  impression,  Wash- 
ington left  West  Point  well  garrisoned,  while  he  moved  his 
main  army  into  New  Jersey  as  if  intending  to  attack  Staten 
Island  as  the  first  step  in  a  campaign  directed  against  New 
York.  Only  the  French  general  knew  the  real  purpose  in 
Washington's  mind.  So  secretly  and  so  rapidly  did  the  army 
move  that  its  French  and  American  soldiers  did  not  realize 
until  they  had  actually  reached  Philadelphia  that  the  object 
of  this  general  movement  of  troops  was  to  unite  with  the  land 
forces  under  Lafayette  and  the  naval  forces  under  De  Grasse 
5n  an  effort  to  crush   Cornwallis.     This  brilliant  scheme 


7° 


GEORGE   WASHINGTON 


worked  famously.  The  troops  had  marched  halfway  across 
New  Jersey  before  the  British  in  New  York  realized  they  had 
gone.  By  this  skillful  union  of  his  forces,  Washington  securely 
hemmed  in  Cornwallis  both  by  sea  and  by  land.  The  British 
general  made  several  gallant  efforts  to  break  through  the 
surrounding  lines,  but  soon  found  that  he  must  surrender  to 
superior  forces.  So  on  the  19th  of  October,  1781,  the  Brit- 
ish army  marched  out  of  its  fortifications  to  the  humiliating 
notes  of  a  quaint  old  English  tune,  "The  World  Turned  Up- 
side Down,"  and  laid  down  its  arms.  This  was  the  crown- 
ing event  in  the  career  of  Washington  as  a  great  military 
leader. 

This  victory  practically  ended  the  war,  although  peace 
was  not  declared  until  1783.  No  one  rejoiced  more  at  its 
close  than  did  Washington.  He  had  grown  gray  in  his 
country's  service.     He  had  become  the  first  soldier  of  his 


Washington  taking  Leave  of  his  Officers  and  Friends 


PRESIDENT  71 

time,  and  now  he  longed  for  the  peace  and  comfort  of  Mount 
Vernon.  On  the  4U1  of  December,  1783,  at  Fraunce's  tavern 
in  New  York  city,  he  met  his  generals  and  dearest  friends  to 
bid  them  farewell.  After  taking  an  affectionate  leave  of 
his  comrades  he  returned  to  the  home  from  which  he  had 
been  separated  for  so  many  years.  Here  with  his  flocks  and 
herds,  among  the  familiar  scenes  he  loved  so  well,  he  hoped 
to  pass  the  rest  of  his  days. 

PRESIDENT   WASHINGTON 

Washington  was  not  permitted  to  live  in  retirement  for 
many  years  on  his  Virginia  estate.  The  times  that  tried  men's 
souls  were  not  yet  passed.  The  wisest  statesmen  in  the  coun- 
try saw  that  if  the  liberty  that  had  been  won  at  such  a  cost 
was  to  be  kept,  a  stronger  form  of  government  must  be  made. 
So  a  convention  in  Philadelphia  in  1787  drafted  the  Consti- 
tution under  which  we  are  now  a  united  nation.  As  a  result 
of  the  new  form  of  government,  Washington  was  elected  the 
first  President  of  the  United  States.  He  brought  to  the  duties 
of  this  high  office  the  same  sound  judgment,  the  same  grasp 
of  detail,  and  the  same  huge  energy  that  had  marked  his 
career  as  a  general  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 

For  eight  years  he  served  his  country  faithfully  and  without 
pay.  Declining  election  for  a  third  term,  he  again  sought 
retirement  at  Mount  Vernon.  Here  he  occupied  himself 
with  the  cares  of  his  estate;  with  the  planting,  the  harvesting, 
and  the  other  duties  of  a  prosperous  farmer. 

Occasionally  his  friends  would  visit  him,  and  public  men 
would  come  from  all  parts  of  the  country  to  pay  their  respects 
to  the  great  soldier  and  statesman.  His  strict  attention  to 
business  and  the  importance  he  attached  to  small  things  are 
shown  by  the  fact  that  after  his  death  there  were  found  in  his 


72  GEORGE   WASHINGTON 

diary  complete  plans  for  a  succession  of  crops  on  his  farms 
for  the  next  four  years.  But  Washington  was  not  long  spared 
as  an  example  of  industry  and  of  dignity  in  private  as  well  as 
in  public  life.  On  December  12,  1799,  after  a  hard  day  in 
the  saddle  riding  about  his  farms  in  a  rain  storm,  he  returned 
home.  That  night  he  was  taken  with  a  severe  chill,  and  two 
days  later  died. 

The  news  of  his  death  was  received  with  the  deepest  sor- 
row by  the  whole  world,  for  he  was  everywhere  recognized 
as  one  of  the  greatest  figures  of  history. 

Many  years  after,  the  English  novelist  Thackerav  drew  a 
fine  picture  of  him  in  the  novel.  "The  Virginians."  With 
Thackeray's  words  about  Washington  we  must  close  this 
sketch:  "To  endure  is  greater  than  to  dare;  to  tire  out 
hostile  fortune;  to  be  daunted  by  no  difficulties;  to  keep 
heart  when  all  have  lost  it;  to  go  through  intrigue  spotless; 
and  to  forego  even  ambition  when  the  end  is  gained  —  who 
can  say  this  is  not  greatness,  or  show  the  other  Englishman 
who  has  achieved  so  much?" 

Topical  Outline.  —  Life  in  colonial  Virginia;  Mount  Vernon  and  its 
master.  The  colonial  Congresses  and  Washington's  influence  in  them. 
The  Patriot  army  about  Boston.  Preparations  for  active  warfare. 
Congress  takes  the  final  step  of  separation.  The  campaigns  in  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  Washington's  share  in  the  victory  at 
Saratoga.  Hardships  of  the  winter  camp  at  Valley  Forge.  Military 
movements  leading  to  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  End 
of  the  war.  Washington  as  President  and  in  private  life.  The  death 
of  Washington.     Thackeray's  opinion  of  the  great  Virginian. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  story  of  not  less  than  100  words  on 
the  topic,  ''Life  in  Virginia  in  Olden  Times."  II.  Tell  why  you  think 
Washington  was  chosen  to  command  the  Continental  Army.  What 
training  and  experience  and  what  qualities  of  mind  and  body  had  he 
which  fitted  him  for  this  position?     III.  W7hy  was  the  possession  of 


PRESIDENT  73 

the  Hudson  River  deemed  important  by  both  sides?  IV.  Trace  on 
your  map  the  movements  of  Washington's  army  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
year  1776.  V.  Show  how  Washington's  campaigns  in  1777  were  really 
a  great  aid  to  the  American  army  in  the  North  and  made  it  possible  to 
defeat  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga.  VI.  WTrite  the  names  of  as  many  of 
Washington's  friends  as  you  can.  VII.  Imagine  yourself  one  of  Wash- 
ington's soldiers.  Tell  your  experiences  in  the  Continental  Army  and 
especially  why  you  respected  and  loved  Washington. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Boston,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  the  Delaware 
River,  Trenton,  Princeton,  West  Point,  Brandywine  Creek,  Philadel- 
phia, Germantown,  Valley  Forge,  White  Plains,  Yorktown. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Hart  and  Hill,  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution," 
pp.  261-266;  Cooke,  "Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion,"  pp.  94-139. 

Biography.  —  Scudder,  "Life  of  Washington";  Mitchell,  "Youth 
of  Washington";  Brooks,  "True  Story  of  Washington";  Hapgood, 
"George  Washington." 

Poetry.  —  Bryant,  "Song  of  Marion's  Men." 

Fiction.  —  Mitchell,  "Hugh  Wynne";  Stevenson,  "A  Soldier  of  Vir- 
ginia"; Hoppus,  "The  Great  Treason";  Lossing,  "Two  Spies";  But- 
terworth,  "Knights  of  Liberty";  Butterworth,  "Boys  of  Greenway 
Court";  Stoddard,  "The  Red  Patriot";  Seawell,  "A  Virginia  Cava- 
lier "  ;  Tomlinson,  "  Washington's  Young  Aids." 


Washington's    Sword 


SCHUYLER  AND  SARATOGA— 1777 


The  English  wanted  to  weaken  the  colonies  by  cutting  off 
New  England  from  the  rest.  This  could  be  done  if  New 
York  were  taken,  because  the  colonists  had  few  ships,  and 
the  English  fleet  could  prevent  communication  by  sea.  As 
we  know,  New  York  city  and  Long  Island  had  fallen  into 

the  possession  of  the  English.  It 
now  remained  to  take  the  rest  of 
the  colony.  This  looked  an  easy 
matter  in  the  war  office  in  England; 
for  Canada,  an  English  possession, 
extended  all  along  the  northern 
boundary;  a  great  number  of  the 
people  in  New  York  were  Tories,  or 
people  loyal  to  the  king,  and  the 
Iroquois  Indians,  too,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Oneidas,  were 
friendly  to  the  English. 
The  plan  was  to  invade  the  state  from  three  points.  Bur- 
goyne  was  to  enter  along  Lake  Champ] ain,  Howe  was  to 
send  an  army  up  the  Hudson,  and  St.  Leger  with  Indian 
allies  was  to  enter  at  Oswego.  Each  army  was  to  move 
toward  Albany.  The  success  of  the  undertaking,  of  course, 
depended  upon  each  man's  carrying  out  perfectly  his  instruc- 
tions. Its  danger  to  the  Patriots  lay  in  the  fact  that  if  the 
British  forces  could  move  swiftly  and  could  cooperate  with 
each  other  the  Americans  would  be  caught  between  hostile 
forces  and  easily  crushed.     But,  as  you  will  see  by  glancing 

74 


General  Burgoyne 


BURGOYNE  S    INVASION  75 

at  the  map,  the  British  generals  could  not  communicate 
with  one  another;  for  the  unexplored  wilderness  of  the  Adi- 
rondack^ lay  between  Burgo)  ne  and  St.  Leger,  and  the  thickly 
settled  country  of  the  Patriots  lay  between  Burgoyne  and  the 
English  in  New  York  city.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Ameri- 
can generals  were  constantly  informed  of  the  action  of  the 
enemy.  General  Schuyler  at  Albany,  General  Putnam  on 
the  lower  Hudson,  and  General  Washington  at  Morristown, 
had  their  messengers  going  back  and  forth  with  reports  and 
orders. 

Early  in  June,  1777,  General  Burgoyne  with  an  army  of 
about  8000,  consisting  of  English  regulars,  German  troops 
whom  King  George  had  hired,  Canadians,  and  Indians, 
entered  the  Champlain  valley.  On  July  1,  they  were  before 
Ticonderoga,  where  a  garrison  of  3000  Americans  was  sta- 
tioned. This  place  was  well  fortified  and  was  regarded  as 
practically  impregnable,  but  a  serious  oversight  made  it  in 
reality  weak.  Less  than  a  mile  away  is  a  crag  600  feet  high, 
jutting  out  into  the  lake.  An  English  general  noted  this 
and  determined  to  plant  guns  there.  It  was  steep  and 
rocky,  but  the  general  said,  "Where  a  goat  can  go,  a  man 
can  go;  and  where  a  man  can  go,  he  can  haul  a  gun." 

On  the  morning  of  July  5,  the  garrison  in  Ticonderoga 
were  amazed  to  see  "redcoats"  and  brass  cannon  decorat- 
ing the  top  of  this  crag,  which  the  English  called  Mouni: 
Defiance.  A  council  of  war  was  at  once  held,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans, knowing  that  the  fort  could  easily  be  demolished  by  the 
English  guns  at  that  elevation,  decided  to  escape.  Therefore, 
that  night,  the  garrison  safely  crossed  the  lake  and  went  to 
Castleton  in  the  Green  Mountains.  The  supplies  were  sent 
to  Fort  Edward,  so  when  the  English  took  possession  of 
Ticonderoga  they  found  but  an  empty  fortress. 


76 


SCHUYLER  AND   SARATOGA 


The  Remains  of  Fort  Ticonderoga 

The  taking  of  this  fort  was  at  first  regarded  by  the  English 
government  as  practically  finishing  the  war,  but  we  shall  see 
that  it  meant  little.  Indeed,  it  served  to  weaken  Burgoyne, 
for  he  felt  obliged  to  leave  iooo  of  his  men  to  hold  it,  and  he 
could  ill  afford  to  spare  so  many  men.  From  this  time  on, 
his  great  enemy  was  General  Philip  Schuyler. 

Philip  Schuyler  was  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  early  Dutch 
patroons.  Although  he  had  inherited  great  wealth,  he  spent 
the  best  years  of  his  life  enduring  the  hardships  of  a  soldier 
on  the  frontier.  He  served  throughout  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  and  was  made  a  general  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution.  He  had  remarkable  influence  with  the  Indians, 
but  aroused  the  dislike  and  jealousy  of  the  New  England 
troops.  His  wisdom  won  for  him  the  title  of  "the  eye  of 
the  northern  army."     After  a  while  he  proved  to  be  the  good 


)  , 


BURGOYNE  S   INVASION 


77 


right  arm  of  the  whole  army.  lie  was  fortunate  in  having 
under  his  command  able  men  and  officers,  like  General 
Herkimer  and  Benedict  Arnold,  !  who  were  willing  to  work 
and  to  fight. 

When  Burgoyne  entered  the  state,  Schuyler  commanded 
the  American  army  stationed  near  Albany.  After  the  fall 
of  Ticonderoga,  he  moved  his 
base  to  Fort  Edward,  while  Bur- 
goyne reached  Whitehall  with 
little  difficulty.  Schuyler  did  not 
have  enough  men  to  engage  the 
enemy  in  open  battle,  but  he  de- 
termined to  make  their  advance 
into  the  state  as  difficult  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  roads  were  few  and  bad  at 
best.  Schuyler  and  his  men  made 
them  worse.  They  cut  down 
great  trees  and  let  them  fall 
across  the  roads.  They  blocked 
up  streams  with  stones  and 
stumps.  They  burned  bridges 
and  destroyed  fences  so  that  the 
English  would  have  no  material 
of  which  to  build  new  ones. 
Schuyler  finally  decided  that  he 
could  not  hold  Fort  Edward,  so  he  ordered  his  army  to  fall 
back  to  Stillwater,  30  miles  above  Albany. 

Burgoyne  and  his  troops  started  from  Whitehall,  and  the 
difficulties  of  marching  and  hauling  their  guns  and  supplies 

1  This  was  while  Arnold  was   still   a   Patriot  —  three  years  before  he 
turned  traitor. 


General  Schuyler 


78  SCHUYLER   AND    SARATOGA 

were  so  great  that  they  made  on  an  average  but  a  mile  a  day. 
It  is  said  that  Schuyler's  work  had  been  so  well  done  that 
Burgoyne's  men  had  to  build  forty  bridges,  besides  getting 
out  the  timbers  for  them.  This  delay  was  a  serious  thing- 
for  Burgoyne's  food  supply  was  nearly  gone  and  his  men  found 
foraging  difficult.  He  had  expected  to  find  the  farmers 
largely  Tories,  but  they  proved  to  be  Patriots  instead. 

About  this  time  occurred  the  sad  death  of  Jane  McCrea, 
a  beautiful  American  girl,  who  was  captured  and  murdered 
by  Indian  allies  of  Burgoyne.  It  was  one  of  the  influences 
that  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  English,  for  it  thor- 
oughly aroused  the  people  of  the  state  to  fight  against  the 
enemy. 

Burgoyne  now  heard  that  the  people  of  New  England  had 
been  collecting  stores  of  food,  horses,  and  military  supplies 
at  Bennington,  Vermont.  If  this  place  could  be  captured,  it 
would  furnish  him  what  he  sorely  needed,  and  would  also 
cripple  the  Americans.  So  in  the  middle  of  August  he  sent 
600  men  to  seize  the  stores  or  take  the  town.  But  the  New 
Englanders  did  not  leave  a  place  like  Bennington  unprotected. 
Every  man  and  boy  for  miles  around  considered  it  his  per- 
sonal duty  to  see  that  those  supplies  were  safe. 

Colonel  John  Stark,  a  man  who  had  served  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  had  fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  Trenton, 
and  Princeton,  was  at  his  home  in  New  Hampshire.  A 
message  came  to  him  that  an  English  army  had  started  toward 
Bennington.  Without  waiting  for  orders,  he  collected  800 
armed  men  and  boys  and  hurried  away.  He  reached  Ben- 
nington and,  not  finding  the  enemy  near,  pushed  out  on  the 
road  and  met  them  six  miles  away,  near  the  village  of  Hoosick 
Falls  in  New  York.  The  English  were  warned  and  took  up 
a  strong  position  for  defense..     It  had  rained  for  two  or  three 


ST.  leger's  invasion  70 

days.  It  still  rained,  so  Colonel  Stark  waited  in  sight  but 
out  of  reach.  Green  Mountain  boys,  Berkshire  militia,  and 
New  England  farmers  kept  coming  to  join  Stark's  army. 
They  were  a  queer  looking  crowd,  having  no  uniforms,  and  no 
bayonets,  but  armed  with  all  kinds  of  muskets  and  shot  guns. 

The  morning  of  August  16th  was  bright  and  hot.  Stark 
made  ready  to  attack  the  English.  He  had  been  sending  men 
in  groups  of  ten  or  a  dozen  to  the  rear  of  the  fortified  position 
of  the  English.  If  they  were  seen,  they  aroused  no  suspicion, 
for  they  looked  little  like  soldiers.  Finally,  about  noon 
Stark  ordered  an  attack.  The  first  firing  in  front  was  to  be 
the  signal  for  the  men  in  the  rear  also  to  fire.  The  English 
were  amazed  to  find  almost  as  large  an  army  back  of  them 
as  in  front.  In  less  than  two  hours  the  English  commander 
was  wounded  and  his  army  captured.  Just  then  a  fresh  band 
of  500  came  up  as  reinforcements,  but  strangely  enough  an 
equal  number  of  fresh  American  troops  appeared  and  again 
surrounded  the  invaders,  who  were  soon  captured  or  scat- 
tered. In  this  battle  near  Bennington,  Burgoyne  lost  icoo 
men,  of  whom  700  were  taken  prisoners.  The  effect  upon 
the  English  was  most  depressing,  while,  of  course,  the  Amer- 
icans were  jubilant. 

We  recall  that  St.  Lcger  was  to  enter  the  state  at  Oswego 
and  move  along  the  Mohawk  valley.  Fort  Stanwix, — also 
called  Fort  Schuyler,  —  on  the  site  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
commanded  the  entrance  to  the  valley  from  the  west.  St. 
Leger  reached  there  early  in  August.  General  Herkimer,1 
in  command  of  the  militia  in  the  Mohawk  valley,  hear- 
ing of   his  approach,   had  hurried  forward  to    relieve    the 

1  Herkimei-'s  home,  a  quaint  old  colonial  mansion,  built  of  red  brick,  is 
still  standing  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk  River  two  miles  east  of 
the  city  of  Little  Falls,  N.  Y. 


8o 


SCHUYLER  AND   SARATOGA 


fort.  He  reached  Oriskany,  and  planned  that,  at  a  given 
signal,  the  garrison  from  the  fort  should  rush  out  and 
attack  St.  Leger,  while  Herkimer  and  his  men  should  at- 
tack him  from  the  rear.  But  a  mistake  was  made,  and 
Herkimer's  men,  becoming  impatient  because  they  did  not 
hear  the  signal  guns,  wanted  to  push  forward.  The  Indian 
scouts  had  warned  St.   Leger  of  their  approach,  and  his 


The  Battle  of  Oriskany 

Indian  allies  hurried  out  to  a  place  where  the  road  crossed  a 
swampy  ravine.  Here  an  ambush  was  formed,  and  when 
Herkimer  and  his  men  in  a  long  line  of  march  entered  this 
ravine,  they  were  attacked  from  all  sides.  The  fighting  was 
horrible,  but  Herkimer's  men  held  their  ground  for  hours. 
Late  in  the  afternoon,  to  add  to  the  horror,  a  terrible  thunder- 
storm broke  on  them.  The  superstitious  Indians  gave  way 
and  fled,  and  the  remnant  of  the  English  were  also  glad  to 


ST.    LEGER  S   INVASION 


8l 


; 


leave.     The  Patriots  held  the  held,  but  their  commander 
Herkimer  was  mortally  wounded.1 

When  the  fight  was  over,  they  heard  the  signal  guns  from 
the  fort,  telling  them  that  the  garrison  was  starting  out.  By 
this  time  St.  Leger's  men  were  badly  scattered  and  the  Indian 
allies  had  become  unmanageable,  so  the  fresh  soldiers  from 
the  fort  easily  routed  them.  They  captured  from  St.  Leger's 
camp,  besides  blankets,  food,  and  ammunition,  five  English 
flags. 

When  the  garrison  returned  to  the  fort  they  hoisted  these 
English  flags  upside  down,  and 
high  above  them  a  new  flag  of 
red,  white,  and  blue.  Con- 
gress had  recently  adopted  this 
style  of  flag,  but  the  armies  had 
not  been  supplied  with  them. 
The  flag  at  Fort  Stanwix  had 
been  hurriedly  made  of  pieces 
of  flannel  and  cotton  that  were 
at  hand,  and  it  claims  the  honor 
of  being  the  first  American 
stars  and  stripes  flung  to  the  breeze.     This  was  August  6, 

1777- 

St.  Leger  had  to  fall  back  to  a  place  of  safety  where  he 
could  repair  his  losses  and  win  over  the  sullen  Indian  allies, 
who  were  deserting  him.  Word  of  this  battle  at  Oriskany 
was  hurriedly  sent  to  Schuyler,  and  a  call  for  help  was  made. 
Schuyler  saw  the  need  and  was  ready  to  send  help;  but  his 
officers  objected,  for  it  would  weaken  the  army  that  must 
face  Burgoyne.     He  was,   however,   determined  to  relieve 

1  A  beautiful  monument  fittingly  marks  the  spot  where  this  battle  was 
fought. 


The  First  American  Stars  and 
Stripes 


82  SCHUYLER  AND    SARATOGA 

Fort  Stanwix,  and  was  willing  to  assume  the  sole  responsi- 
bility for  it.  Finally  he  cried  out:  "Where  is  the  brigadier 
who  will  go?"  Benedict  Arnold  replied,  "Here  he  is! 
Washington  sent  me  here  to  make  myself  useful;  I  will  go." 
Very  soon  1200  Massachusetts  men  had  volunteered  to  go 
with  him. 

They  started  immediately,  but  the  roads  were  so  poor  and 
marching  was  so  slow,  that  after  a  week  they  were  still 
twenty  miles  from  Fort  Stanwix.  One  day,  two  brothers  were 
captured  as  Tory  spies.  They  were  first  sentenced  to  death. 
Then  an  idea  came  to  Arnold,  and  he  agreed  to  spare  their 
lives  if  the  younger,  Yan  Yost,  a  half-witted  youth,  would 
run  on  ahead  to  spread  alarm  among  St.  Leger's  men.  The 
elder  brother  was  kept  as  a  hostage. 

St.  Leger's  scouts  had  heard  that  an  American  army  was 
coming  up  the  Mohawk  valley,  and  while  the  matter  was 
being  discussed  in  camp,  Yan  Yost  came  running  in  with 
bullet  holes  in  his  clothes.  With  a  frightened  manner  he 
said  that  he  had  had  a  narrow  escape  from  the  American 
army.  They  asked  him  how  large  the  approaching  army 
was,  and  he  declared  the  soldiers  were  as  numerous  as  the 
leaves  on  the  trees.  Very  likely  Arnold's  army  did  seem 
very  large  to  him  when  he  was  under  sentence  of  death  as  a 
spy.  He  was  recognized  as  a  Tory  and  his  story  was  believed. 
The  Indians  deserted.  The  camp  became  panic-stricken, 
and  by  noon  the  next  day,  August  22,  St.  Leger's  army  had 
melted  away.  The  few  who  clung  to  the  general  were  set 
upon  by  unfriendly  Indians  before  they  reached  Oswego; 
so  it  was  but  a  handful  of  soldiers  who  sailed  with  St.  Leger 
for  Montreal  a  few  days  later. 

The  battle  of  Oriskany,  unimportant  in  itself,  and  the 
failure  of  St.  Leger's  expedition,  were  nevertheless  of  the 


BURGOYNE  S    INVASION 


83 


greatest  importance  in  their  effect  upon  the  fortunes  of  the 
war  for  independence.  The  heroic  frontiersmen  who  de- 
fended the  outpost  at  Fort  Stanwix,  the  rash  bravery  of 
Herkimer  and  his  men,  and  the  shrewdness  and  courage  of 
Arnold  checked  St.  Lcger  and  his  allies,  and  prevented  their 
sweeping  through  the  Mohawk  val- 
ley and  cooperating  with  Burgoyne. 
This  made  possible  the  American  vic- 
tory at  Saratoga,  of  which  we  are  next 
to  read. 

We  know  that  General  Howe,  in- 
stead of  coming  up  the  Hudson  to  ful- 
fill his  part  of  the  plan,  had  gone  to 
Philadelphia,  where  Washington  was 
keeping  him  occupied.  Burgoyne's 
position  north  of  Albany  was  becom- 
ing critical.  He  had  been  deprived 
of  the  help  of  the  other  two  armies, 
and  had  lost  heavily  at  Bennington. 
The  farmers  about  him  were  hostile, 
and  food  was  very  difficult  to  get. 

At  just  this  time,  when  the  prospect 
of  driving  Burgoyne  out  of  the  state 
was  very  good,  some  of  Schuyler's 
enemies  succeeded  in  getting  Congress  to  take  the  command 
away  from  him.  General  Gates,  who  had  never  been  known 
to  do  much  but  boast,  was  appointed  to  take  his  place  and 
reap  the  fruits  of  Schuyler's  hard  work.  Schuyler's  fine, 
manly  character  showed  itself  at  this  time.  He  courte- 
ously handed  over  the  authority  to  Gates  and  assured  him 
that  he  would  be  glad  to  aid  him  in  any  way  he  could. 
Gates  showed   his  baseness  by  not  even  asking   General 


General  Gates 


MAK.   &    DEF. 


84 


SCHUYLER  AND    SARATOGA 


Schuyler  to  his  first  council  of  officers.  This  change  of  com- 
manders would  have  been  disastrous  had  it  not  been  for  the 
presence  of  the  fighting  General  Arnold,  who,  as  we  shall 
see,  was  responsible  for  the  victories  at  Bemis  Heights  or 
Stillwater. 

On  September  13,  Burgoyne  crossed  to  the  west  bank  of 
the  Hudson  and  moved  toward  "Albany,  fifty  miles  south. 


Arnold  in  a  Charge  at  the  Second  Battle  of  Freeman's  Farm 

The  American  army  under  Gates  was  intrenched  on  a  ridge 
known  as  Bemis  Heights.  The  right  wing  covered  the  road 
to  Albany,  the  center  was  protected  by  dense  woods,  and  the 
left  under  Arnold  lay  a  little  in  advance  in  the  open  fields. 
On  September  18,  the  English  army  camped  two  miles  from 
this  position.  The  next  morning,  Arnold  with  about  3000 
men  was  sent  to  check  the  advance  of  the  enemy,  and  a  hard 
battle  was  fought  on  Freeman's  farm,  while  the  main  part 


GATES   IN   COMMAND  85 

of  the  American  army  was  idle  on  Bemis  Heights.  Long 
after  dark,  Arnold  drew  his  men  back  to  the  intrenchments, 
and  the  English  slept  on  the  field. 

The  two  armies  remained  opposite  each  other  until  Octo- 
ber 7,  when  Burgoyne  invited  battle,  apparently  to  cover  the 
work  of  a  foraging  party.  This  battle  also  was  fought  on 
Freeman's  farm,  and  Arnold  was  again  a  hero.  These  two 
battles  have  been  called  by  various  names,  as  Bemis  Heights 
Stillwater,  and  Freeman's  Farm;  and  to-day  the  place  is 
known  as  Schuylerville. 

General  Burgoyne  now  led  the  remnant  of  his  army  in 
retreat  to  Saratoga,  stopping  on  the  way  to  burn  the  beautiful 
summer  home  of  General  Schuyler.  He  soon  found,  to  his 
surprise,  that  his  little  army  was  actually  surrounded  by  at 
least  20,000  men,  hostile  and  armed,  if  not  all  regularly 
enlisted  soldiers.  Burgoyne  saw  it  was  hopeless  to  resist,  and 
sent  to  Gates,  asking  what  terms  of  surrender  would  be 
accepted. 

It  was  agreed  that  the  English  should  break  camp,  stack 
their  arms,  march  through  Massachusetts  to  Boston,  and  sail 
at  once  for  Europe  with  the  understanding  that  none  of  them 
should  serve  again  during  the  war  in  America. 

We  can  picture  to  ourselves  the  army  of  gallant  English 
soldiers  and  German  veterans  under  Burgoyne's  command 
as  they  marched  out  of  camp,  October  17,  1777.  They  piled 
their  guns,  swords,  and  cartridge  belts  in  a  corner  of  the  field 
near  the  river.  Then  they  formed  in  line  and  marched  past 
the  American  troops.  An  English  officer  afterward  said: 
"I  did  not  observe  the  least  disrespect  or  even  a  taunting 
look,  but  all  was  mute  astonishment  and  pity."  Burgoyne 
stepped  forward  and  handed  his  sword  to  General  Gates, 
saying,  "The  fortunes  of  war  have  made  me  your  prisoner." 


86 


SCHUYLER   AND    SARATOGA 


The  American  general  returned  the  sword,  saying,  "I  shall 
always  be  ready  to  testify  that  it  has  not  been  through  any 
fault  of  your  Excellency." 


*-  1  J**    •     i 


The  Surrender  of  Burgoyne 

The  wife  and  children  of  one  of  the  officers  were  brought 
into  camp  just  after  the  surrender,  and  in  the  following  pas- 
sage she  has  told  how  she  was  received.  "As  I  approached 
the  tents  a  noble-looking  gentleman  came  toward  me,  took 
the  children  out  of  the  wagon,  and  embraced  and  kissed  them; 
and  then  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  helped  me  to  alight.  Pres- 
ently he  said,  'It  may  be  embarrassing  to  you  to  dine  with 
so  many  gentlemen.  If  you  will  come  with  your  children  to 
my  tent,  I  will  give  you  a  frugal  meal,  but  one  seasoned  with 
good  wishes.'"    This  man  was  General  Schuyler. 

Schuyler  showed  in  many  other  ways  his  generous  spirit. 


burgoyne's  surrender  87 

When,  a  few  days  later,  Burgoyne  expressed  to  him  regret 
that  the  English  soldiers  had  burned  his  beautiful  country 
home  at  Saratoga,  Schuyler  urged  the  English  general  to 
think  no  more  about  it,  saying  that,  according  to  the  rules  of 
war,  it  was  justifiable.  When  Burgoyne  started  for  Albany, 
Schuyler  furnished  an  escort  who  took  the  English  general 
to  Schuyler's  city  home,  where  Burgoyne  was  cordially 
received  by  Mrs.  Schuyler  and  entertained  for  several  clays. 
The  surrender  of  Burgoyne  near  Saratoga  in  October,  1777, 
is  regarded  as  the  turning  point  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 
It  not  only  saved  New  York  state  and  disposed  of  a  whole 
army,  but  it  influenced  France  to  send  aid  to  the  colonies, 
thus  enlisting  that  powerful  nation  on  our  side  in  the  struggle 
with  England. 

Topical  Outline.  —  England  planned  to  cut  off  New  England  by  tak- 
ing New  York.  Burgoyne  was  to  enter  by  Lake  Champlain,  Howe  by  the 
Hudson  River  and  St.  Lcger  at  Oswego,  each  to  move  toward  Albany. 
Fall  of  Ticonderoga.  Schuyler  blocked  up  Burgoyne's  roads.  A  mile  a 
day.  English  defeated  at  Bennington.  Battle  at  Oriskany.  Herkimer 
killed.  Stars  and  Stripes  raised  over  Fort  Stanwix.  Burgoyne  sur- 
rounded; surrendered  October  17,  1777.    Chief  result,  aid  from  France. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Indicate  on  outline  map  the  routes  taken 
by  English  armies  and  places  where  battles  were  fought.  II.  Write 
a  story,  from  imagination  or  memory,  of  the  making  of  the  flag  at  Fort 
Stanwix.  III.  What  were  the  weak  points  in  the  English  plan  of  in- 
vading New  York  ?  IV.  Write  a  paragraph  to  show  that  Washington 
helped  in  bringing  about  Burgoyne's  surrender. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Montreal,  Lake  Champlain,  Lake  George, 
Ticonderoga,  Whitehall,  Bennington,  Fort  Edward,  Bcmis  Heights, 
Stillwater,  Oswego,  Fort  Stanwix  (Fort  Schuyler),  Oriskany. 

Collateral  Reading 
History.  —  Prentice,  "History  of  New  York   State,"  pp.    262-275; 
Williams,  "Stories  from  Early  New  York  History,"  pp.  182-199;  Brooks, 


88 


SCHUYLER  AND   SARATOGA 


"Century  Book  of  the  American  Revolution,"  pp.  159-173;  Hart  and 
Hill,  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution,"  pp.  253-265;  272-279. 

Biography. — Tuckerman,  "Philip  Schuyler." 

Fiction.  —  Frederic,  "In  the  Valley";  Altsheler,  "The  Sun  of  Sara- 
toga"; Thompson,  "The  Green  Mountain  Boys";  Otis,  "Boys  of  Fort 
Schuyler"  ;  Tomlinson,  "  Two  Young  Patriots." 

Note.  —  Those  desiring  to  refer  to  a  somewhat  similar  campaign 
in  the  Champlain  valley  during  the  French  and  Indian  War  will  find 
the  material  in  Foote  and  Skinner's  "Explorers  and  Founders  of 
America,"  pp.  300-302. 


Cannon  used  in  the  Revolution 


GENERAL  NATHANAEL  GREENE 


Nathanael  Greene  was  a  descendant  of  John  Greene, 
who  with  Roger  Williams  settled  in  Rhode  Island  in  1636. 
He  was  born  in  1742.  His  father  was  a  rich  man,  owning  a 
forge,  a  sawmill,  a  gristmill,  and  a  general  store,  besides  many 
acres  of  land. 

Nathanael  was  the  fifth  of  nine  children.  He  was  a 
sturdy  boy  of  happy  disposition  and 
very  bright  mind.  His  father,  how- 
ever, did  not  believe  in  much  educa- 
tion. He  had  his  children  learn  to 
read  and  write,  but  he  believed  that 
the  Bible  was  the  only  book  worthy 
of  study.  The  boy  wanted  to  go  to 
school,  and  when  he  was  fourteen  he 
met  a  college  boy  who  told  of  his 
work.  Nathanael  then  teased  his 
father  until  he  gained  permission  to  study  Latin  and  geom- 
etry for  a  time  with  a  tutor. 

Although  the  father  was  a  rich  man,  he  did  not  allow  the 
boy  much  spending  money.  Nathanael,  knowing  his  father's 
prejudice  against  books,  did  not  ask  for  money  to  buy  them. 
Instead  he  watched  the  men  at  the  forge  until  he  was  able  to 
make  some  toy  anchors,  which  he  took  to  Newport  and  sold. 
With  the  money  he  went  to  a  bookstore  and  said  that  he 
wanted  to  buy  a  book.  When  asked  what  book,  he  really 
did  not  know.     A  man  standing  near  heard  the  boy,  and 

89 


General  Greene 


90  NATHANAEL   GREENE 

not  only  helped  him  to  select  a  book,  but  told  him  of  others 
good  to  read.  This  first  visit  to  a  bookstore  was  made  when 
Nathanael  was  fifteen.  It  was  often  repeated  until,  when  he 
became  a  man,  he  had  a  well-selected  library. 

We  know  that  Quakers  do  not  believe 'in  war.  Although 
Nathanael  had  been  brought  up  a  Quaker,  in  1773  he  believed 
it  was  the  duty  of  all  people  to  resist  the  English  oppression 
and  defend  the  rights  of  the  colonists.  He  began  to  attend 
military  parades  and  to  talk  about  organizing  a  company. 
Such  conduct  could  not  be  excused,  so  he  was  expelled  from 
the  Quaker  Meeting.  This  same  thing  happened  with  many 
other  young  men  brought  up  in  the  Quaker  belief. 

Greene  helped  to  organize  what  was  known  as  the  "  Kentish 
Guards,"  a  company  of  young  men  who  secured  a  good  drill 
master  and  trained  so  faithfully  that  during  the  war  they 
furnished  to  the  army  thirty-two  officers  of  distinction. 
When  word  came  of  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord, 
Greene  started  at  once  for  Concord.  A  few  weeks  later, 
Rhode  Island  had  raised  three  regiments,  and  Greene  was 
appointed  their  commander.  They  joined  the  army  near 
Boston.  WThen  Washington  took  command  in  July,  1775, 
Greene,  although  but  thirty-three  years  of  age,  was  selected 
as  one  of  the  eight  brigadiers  general.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  a  close  personal  friendship  between  the  two  men,  which 
lasted  until  General  Greene's  death. 

We  recall  that  Washington,  having  succeeded  in  driving 
the  English  from  Boston  in  March,  1776,  then  hurried  to  hold 
New  York.  Greene  was  placed  in  command  of  the  troops 
on  Long  Island.  He  made  himself  perfectly  familiar  with 
all  the  roads,  hills,  and  places  of  landing  on  the  island:  His 
troops  were  under  good  discipline,  and  work  was  going  on 
nicely,  when  he  was  taken  sick  with  fever  just  five  days  before 


WAR   IN    THE   NORTH  9 1 

the  battle  of  Long  Island.  This  was  most  unfortunate, 
and  General  Greene  for  months  afterward  could  not  get  over 
the  bitter  disappointment  that  he  was  not  able  to  command 
his  men  at  so  critical  a  time.  From  this  time  until  1780  he 
was  in  every  battle'f ought  by  Washington,  save  that  at  White 
Plains. 

Every  year  since  the  war  began,  the  English  had  mack- 
attempts  to  get  possession  of  the  southern  states,  but  not  until 
December,  1779,  did  they  make  extensive  plans  to  do  so. 
Then  Clinton  and  Cornwallis  with  8000  men  sailed  for 
Savannah,  which  they  took  with  little  difficulty.  They  then 
moved  north,  and  after  a  siege  of  two  months  took  Charleston. 

General  Gates  was  sent  south  in  June,  1780,  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  English.  In  August,  Gates  was  defeated  and 
his  army  destroyed  by  Cornwallis  at  Camden,  S.  C.  A  few7 
weeks  later  Cornwallis  sent  a  band  of  1200  men  back  into 
the  mountains  of  South  Carolina  to  enlist  Tories.  There 
proved  to  be  fewrer  in  the  region  than  they  supposed;  and  the 
backwoodsmen,  hearing  of  the  approach  of  the  English,  began 
to  swarm  on  their  trail.  These  hardy  mountaineers  were 
good  shots  and  knew  every  inch  of  the  country.  They  were 
used  to  exposure  and  the  difficulties  of  wilderness  fighting. 
When  the  English  leader  realized  the  hostility  of  these  men, 
he  took  up  a  position  on  Kings  Mountain,  where  he  thought 
he  could  easily  defeat  them.  The  Americans  knew  the 
mountain  better  than  he,  and  they  charged  up  the  steep  sides 
in  three  divisions.  Desperate  fighting  followed,  but  the  Eng- 
lish were  utterly  defeated.  The  Americans  captured  1500 
stands  of  arms,  which  they  sorely  needed.  This  victory 
in  October  served  to  offset  the  crushing  defeat  of  Gates  in 
August. 

Meanwhile  Greene  was  on  his  way  south,  not  only  to  take 


REVOLUTION   IN   THE    SOUTH  93 

command  but  to  create  an  army  in  the  southern  states  and 
to  drive  out  the  English.  Washington  gave  Greene  full 
authority  to  do  whatever  in  his  judgment  seemed  best  under 
the  circumstances.  It  was  probably  the  most  important  com- 
mission granted  to  any  general  during  the  war.  General 
Greene  was  unacquainted  with  the  character  of  the  country 
and  with  the  resources  at  his  command.  He  was  not  the  man 
to  hesitate,  however,  when  Washington  asked  him  to  do  any- 
thing. So  without  even  bidding  his  wife  and  children  good-by, 
he  hurried  off  to  South  Carolina. 

Cornwallis  and  Greene  had  met  on  many  battlefields,  and 
they  had  great  respect  for  each  other's  ability.  Cornwallis 
once  wrote,  "Greene  is  as  dangerous  as  Washington;  he  is 
vigilant,  enterprising,  and  full  of  resources.  With  but  little 
hope  of  gaining  an  advantage  over  him,  I  never  feel  secure 
when  encamped  in  his  neighborhood."  General  Greene  was 
thirty-eight  and  Cornwallis  four  years  older.  Both  men  had 
small  armies  under  command,  and  the  field  of  operation  was 
immense.  "The  game  was  played  with  the  greatest  skill 
on  both  sides,  and  no  campaign  in  American  history  has  illus- 
trated the  art  of  war  in  its  highest  branches  more  fully  than 
the  campaign  of  1781,"  says  one  writer. 

General  Greene  made  friends  of  the  sharpshooters  and 
the  unorganized  backwoodsmen  who  had  won  the  victory  at 
Kings  Mountain.  He  learned  from  these  men  the  lay  of 
the  land  and  the  positions  of  the  English  troops.  Unlike 
General  Gates,  he  saw  the  value  of  cavalry  troops,  and  he  was 
fortunate  in  having  Colonel  William  Washington  and  Major 
Henry  Lee  (Light  Horse  Harry)  as  cavalry  leaders. 

We  must  remember  that  the  English  were  holding  Charles- 
ton on  the  coast,  and  Augusta,  Fort  Ninety-six,  and  other 
points  in  the  interior  from  which  to  draw  army  supplies. 


94 


NATHANAEL   GREENE 


These  places  are  arranged  in  crescent  shape,  with  one  point 
on  the  coast,  and  the  other  in  the  mountains  of  South  Caro- 
lina. Greene  decided  to  divide  his  army,  keeping  one  division 
in  the  east  at  Cheraw  to  threaten  the  right  wing  on  the  coast, 
and  sending  the  other  division  under  General  Morgan  to 
threaten  the  interior  points  held  by  the  English.  Each  divi- 
sion was  made  up  of  militia,  regulars,  cavalry,  and  sharp- 
shooters. This  action  of  Greene's  compelled  Cornwallis  also 
to  divide  his  army.  For,  if  he  attacked  Greene  in  the  east, 
Morgan  would  take  the  places  in  the  west;  while,  if  he  started 
toward  Morgan,  Greene  would  take  the  coast  towns  and  cut 
off  his  base  on  the  sea. 

Cornwallis  was  now  in  a  serious  dilemma,  but  he  did 
the  best  he  could.  He  sent  a  brave  young  leader  with  half 
his  force  to  check  Morgan  in  the  west,  while  he  pushed  into 


The  Battle  of  Cowpens 


REVOLUTION    IN   THE    SOUTH  95 

North  Carolina,  hoping  to  draw  Greene  after  him.  On  the 
approach  of  the  English,  Morgan  was  near  Kings  Mountain. 
He  chose  a  cattle-grazing  ground,  known  as  Cowpens,  for  his 
position,  and  arranged  his  men  with  care.  He  placed  his 
militia  in  front;  back  of  them  hidden  by  trees  were  the  regular 
troops,  while  Colonel  Washington's  cavalry  were  behind  them 
near  the  river.  The  English  made  their  attack.  The  militia, 
after  firing  a  few  volleys,  swung  around  as  if  to  retreat.  The 
English  closed  ranks  to  follow  them  and  came  up  in  front  of  the 
regulars,  then  the  cavalry  rode  around  the  ends  of  the  battle 
line  and  hemmed  in  the  English.  A  short  fight  followed,  and 
the  English  were  overwhelmingly  defeated.  In  this  battle 
at  Cowpens,  Cornwallis  lost  over  one  third  of  his  forces  in 
the  South,  besides  iooo  stands  of  arms. 

Morgan  immediately  moved  northeast  to  join  Greene. 
Cornwallis  tried  to  intercept  him,  but  failed.  Then  General 
Greene  determined  to  draw  Cornwalljs  north,  far  away  from 
his  base  of  supplies,  and  compel  him  to  fight.  Cornwallis 
did  not  understand  the  trick,  and  as  Greene  rapidly  retreated 
through  North  Carolina,  Cornwallis  followed. 

Thirty  miles  from  the  Virginia  border  Greene  took  up  his 
position  at  Guilford  Courthouse.  Cornwallis  was  eager  for 
battle,  and  for  five  hours  on  March  15  the  two  armies  fought 
desperately.  At  nightfall  General  Greene  retired,  leaving 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  possession  of  the  field,  but  with  an  army 
too  badly  whipped  to  move.  Cornwallis  could  claim  the 
victory  at  Guilford,  but  it  was  meaningless,  for  he  was  left  in 
a  hostile  country  two  hundred  miles  from  his  base  of  supplies 
with  a  small  remnant  of  1 600  men.  He  dared  not  try  to  march 
back  to  South  Carolina,  but  he  could  not  stay  where  he  was, 
so  he  hurried  to  Wilmington.  He  remained  there  but  two 
weeks;  then  he  marched  to  Petersburg,   Virginia,   to  join 


96  NATHANAEL   GREENE 

other  English  troops  and  move  on  toward  Yorktown,  where 
in  the  fall  he  was  obliged  to  surrender. 

After  the  battle  at  Guilford,  General  Greene  returned  south, 
and  with  Major  Henry  Lee,  Morgan,  and  Colonel  Washington 
succeeded  by  March,  1782,  in  retaking  all  the  places  held  by 
the  English  in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.  Fiske  says  of 
the  work  of  Greene:  "So  consummate  had  been  his  strategy 
that,  whether  victorious  or  defeated  on  the  field,  he  had,  in 
every  instance,  gained  the  object  for  which  the  campaign  was 
made." 

General  Greene  remained  in  the  South  until  July,  1783, 
when  he  started  north  on  horseback.  In  fifteen  weeks  he 
rode  a  thousand  miles,  passing  through  towns  and  cities  where 
he  was  always  welcomed  as  a  great  war  hero.  The  winter  of 
1 783-1 784  he  spent  in  Newport  with  his  wife  and  four  chil- 
dren, whom  he  had  not  seen  together  for  nine  years.  The  fol- 
lowing summer,  he  returned  to  Georgia  to  make  his  future 
home. 

He  had  a  large,  comfortable  house,  with  plenty  of  books  in 
the  library  and  horses  in  the  stable.  His  wife  and  children 
were  with  him,  and  he  had  apparently  everything  he  wished 
for.  In  a  letter  written  to  a  friend  in  April,  1786,  he  says: 
"We  are  planting.  We  have  got  upwards  of  60  acres  of  corn 
planted  and  expect  to  plant  130  acres  of  rice.  The  garden 
is  delightful.  .  .  .  We  have  in  the  same  orchard  apples, 
pears,  peaches,  apricots,  nectarines,  plums,  figs,  pomegranates 
and  oranges.  And  we  have  strawberries  that  measure  three 
inches  around."  After  eight  years  of  the  soldier's  life,  he 
found  the  life  of  a  country  gentleman  very  attractive. 

On  June  13,  1786,  he  was  out  in  the  rice  fields  several 
hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day  and  suffered  a  sunstroke, 
from  which  he  died  three  days  later,  at  the  age  of  forty-four. 


REVOLUTION   IN   THE    SOUTH  97 

General  Wayne  (Mad  Anthony),  who  was  with  him,  wrote 
to  a  friend:  "He  was  a  great  soldier,  greater  as  a  citizen, 
immaculate  as  a  friend.  .  .  .  Pardon  this  scrawl;  my 
feelings  are  too  much  affected,  because  I  have  seen  a  great 
and  good  man  die." 

"The  patient,  brave,  enduring,  often  defeated  but  never 
conquered  man,  the  hard  fighting  soldier,  the  keen  strategist 
had  gone  to  his  reward  at  last.  His  work  was  done  and  well 
done,"  says  Senator  Lodge. 

Topical  Outline.  — ■  General  Greene's  boyhood  and  character.  Early 
career  as  a  soldier.  English  invasion  of  the  South.  Greene  sent  —  his 
army  and  methods.  Cowpcns.  Greene's  retreat  to  Guilford  Court- 
house. Cornwallis  outgeneraled,  goes  to  Virginia.  Greene  retakes 
the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.     Greene  as  a  man. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  On  an  outline  map  trace  routes  taken  by 
both  English  and  American  armies.  Mark  battlefields.  II.  In  a  para- 
graph explain  how  a  commander  may  be  defeated  in  battle  and  really 
win  a  victory. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Savannah,  Charleston,  Camden,  Kings  Moun- 
tain, Cowpens,  Guilford  Courthouse,  Wilmington,  N.   C,  Yorktown. 

Collateral  Reading 

Biography.  —  Greene,  "General  Greene." 
Fiction. —  Frost,  "The  Swamp  Fox." 


NATHAN  HALE  —  THE  MARTYR  SPY 

After  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  Washington  placed  his 
army  in  the  best  positions  for  holding  Manhattan  Island. 
Expecting  the  enemy  to  follow  him  at  once,  he  held  himself 
ready  for  defense  at  any  time.  Days  went  by,  and  the  Eng- 
lish did  not  come.  Washington  could  not  understand  their 
delay.  He  feared  that  they  were  planning  another  move,  and 
he  wanted  to  find  out  what.  If  their  positions  on  Long 
Island  were  exposed,  he  might  turn  around  and  strike  them. 
Good  generalship  demanded  that  he  know  how  things  stood 
within  the  enemy's  lines.  He  asked  for  a  volunteer  to  go  as 
a  spy.    Nathan  Hale,  a  young  captain,  offered  to  go. 

Nathan  Hale  was  born  in  Coventry,  Connecticut,  June  6, 
1755.  His  parents  were  people  of  means  and  refinement. 
As  a  child,  he  was  delicate  and  was  very  tenderly  reared. 
When  he  grew  up,  he  became  fond  of  outdoor  life  and  sports 
and  developed  into  a  fine,  strong  young  man.  His  father 
wished  him  to  become  a  minister,  so  he  was  prepared  for  col- 
lege by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Huntington.  His  mind  was  quick, 
and  he  readily  responded  to  books  and  instruction.  He  was 
graduated  from  Yale  at  eighteen.  His  commencement 
speech  was  an  argument  in  favor  of  giving  girls  the  same 
educational  privileges  as  boys. 

Nathan  Hale  is  described  at  this  time  as  being  "almost 

six  feet  in  height,  perfectly  proportioned,  and  in  figure  and 

development     .     .     .     the   most   manly  man   I  have   ever 

seen.    His  chest  was  broad;  his  muscles  were  firm;  his  face 

98 


THE   MARTYR   SPY  99 

wore  a  most  benign  expression;  his  complexion  was  fresh; 
his  eyes  were  light  blue  and  beamed  with  intelligence;  his 
hair  was  soft  and  light  brown  in  color,  and  his  speech  was 
rather  low,  sweet  and  musical.  His  personal  beauty  and 
grace  of  manner  were  most  charming.  In  dress  he  was 
always  neat;  he  was  quick  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  a  being 
in  distress,  brute  or  human;  he  was  overflowing  with  good 
humor  and  was  loved  by  all  who  knew  him." 

He  taught  school  most  successfully  for  nearly  two  years, 
until  word  came  of  the  battle  of  Lexington.  Then  in  a 
public  speech  he  urged  men  to  action.  He  said,  "Let  us 
march  immediately,  and  never  lay  down  our  arms  until  we 
have  obtained  our  independence." 

He  at  once  enlisted  and  was  made  lieutenant.  In  Sep- 
tember, his  regiment  was  ordered  to  Cambridge,  where  he 
shared  in  the  siege  of  Boston.  In  January,  1776,  he  was 
made  captain,  and  after  the  English  were  driven  out  of  Boston 
he  went  with  Washington  to  New  York.  During  the  summer, 
he  served  in  building  fortifications  on  Manhattan  Island. 
He  was  not  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  but  a  few  days  later, 
with  a  small  band  of  picked  men,  he  captured  at  midnight  a 
supply  boat  that  was  anchored  under  the  guns  of  an  English 
war -ship.  It  was  a  daring  feat  and  neatly  done,  without  any 
loss  save  a  little  time.  The  food  was  distributed  among  the 
hungry  soldiers  in  the  patriot  army. 

When  Washington  called  for  a  volunteer  to  enter  the 
enemy's  lines,  Hale  offered  to  go..  He  knew  perfectly  well 
what  he  was  doing.  He  knew  the  work  was  the  work  of  a 
spy.  He  knew  that  if  he  were  recognized  by  the  English,  it 
would  be  death  for  him.  He  also  knew  that  such  information 
as  he  could  get  would  be  of  great  value  to  Washington.  It 
might  possibly  save  the  country.    If  so,  it  was  worth  his  life. 


IOO  NATHAN   HALE 

In  any  case,  Washington  wanted  to  know  the  plans  of  the 
enemy:  that  of  itself  was  enough.  When  he  entered  the  army 
he  entered  for  service.  He  was  a  subordinate  officer.  His 
commander  said,  "Who  will  undertake  this  work?"  "I 
will,"  was  the  cheerful  reply  of  Captain  Hale. 

He  disguised  himself  as  a  traveling  schoolmaster  and 
crossed  the  Sound  from  Connecticut  to  Long  Island.  He 
got  a  pass  into  the  lines.  Wlierever  he  went  he  talked  as  a 
Tory,  showing  a  friendly  feeling  for  the  English.  He  went 
about  freely,  visited  all  the  places  indicated  in  his  orders,  such 
as  Brooklyn,  Flatbush,  and  the  great  English  camps  from 
Bushwick  to  Jamaica.  He  made  note  of  the  fortifications; 
few  of  those  built  by  the  Americans  had  been  repaired.  He 
had  done  his  work  well  and  was  about  to  return,  when  he  was 
recognized  by  a  Tory  relative,  who  reported  the  matter  to 
General  Howe. 

Hale  had  planned  to  cross  the  Sound  to  Connecticut  from 
Huntington  on  the  north  shore  of  Long  Island.  Just  as  he 
was  stepping  into  his  boat,  he  was  arrested  and  taken  to 
Howe's  headquarters.  When  charged  with  being  a  spy,  he 
denied  nothing.  He  gave  his  name  and  rank  in  the  American 
army,  and  surrendered  his  notes  and  papers.  He  was  then 
condemned  to  death. 

He  asked  for  writing  materials;  one  of  his  keepers  gave 
them,  and  he  wrote  a  few  notes  of  farewell  to  the  members  of 
his  family  and  to  friends.  Then  he  asked  that  a  clergyman 
might  come  to  him,  but  this  was  denied.  He  asked  that  he 
might  have  a  Bible  to  read  during  the  few  hours  left  for  him 
to  live;  that,  too,  was  denied  him. 

The  officer  who  led  him  out  to  the  scaffold  on  the  evening 
of  September  22,  1776,  tauntingly  said,  "This  is  a  fine  death 
for  a  soldier  to  die."     Captain  Hale  replied,  "If  I  had  ten 


THE   MARTYR   SPY 


IOI 


thousand  lives  to  live,  I  would  lay  them  down  in  defense  of 

my  injured  and  bleeding  country."     Another  officer  stepped 

forward,  holding  the  letters  that  Hale  had  written  the  night 

before,  and  tore  them 

up  before  the  eyes  of 

the  young  hero.    But 

even   that    did     not 

cause  him  to  flinch, 

and    his   last   words 

were,  "I  only  regret 

that  I  have  but  one 

life  to  give  for    my 

country." 

There  is  always 
some  one  who  is  sym- 
pathetic at  such  a 
time.  Hale  probably 
thought  no  one  stood 
by  who  would  report 
to  his  friends  how  he 
met  that  last  trial. 
But  men  were  there 
who  were  fired  with 
admiration  for  him 
and  told  of  his  death 
in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  English  of- 
ficers said,  "The  rebels  shall  never  know  that  they  had  a  man 
who  could  die  with  such  firmness." 

Near  Huntington,  at  Halesite,  where  he  was  arrested,  is 
a  large  bowlder  with  a  bronze  tablet  to  the  memory  of  this 
brave  young  man.    And  in  City  Hall  Park,  New  York,  is  the 

MAK.   &.  DEF  —  7 


Statue  of  Nathan  Hale,  New  York 


102 


NATHAN   HALE 


beautiful  bronze  statue  of  the  boyish  figure  as  he  stood  bound 
for  execution.  It  is  a  daily  reminder  to  the  thousands  hurry- 
ing by,  that  our  independence  was  bought  by  some  of  the 
best  blood  of  the  land. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Washington's  army  on  Manhattan  Island.  Eng- 
lish army  on  Long  Island.  Washington  needed  to  know  of  the  plans  of 
the  English.  Captain  Hale  offered  to  enter  the  enemy's  lines.  His 
life's  work.    His  manly  death. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Why  do  you  like  Nathan  Hale  ?  II.  If  Hale 
had  returned  safe,  show  how  his  work  might  have  helped  Washington. 

Collateral  Reading 
Poetry.  —  Francis  M.  Finch,  "Nathan  Hale." 


Hale  Monument  at  Huntington 


JOHN  PAUL  JONES  —  FOUNDER  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  NAVY 

When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out,  England  was 
mistress  of  the  seas.  Her  navy  was  the  largest  and  best  in 
Europe:  she  had  at  least  one  thousand  well-armed  ships. 
America  had  practically  none.  The  need  for  war  ships  was 
greatly  felt  by  Washington,  and  efforts  were  made  to  build 
and  man  vessels  for  service.  The  first  undertakings  did  not 
amount  to  much,  but  after  1777 
the  American  navy  did  some  good 
work,  largely  through  the  splen- 
did efforts  of  John  Paul  Jones. 

John  Paul  was  born  in  Scot- 
land in  the  summer  of  1747.  His 
father  was  a  gardener,  a  man  of 
quiet  manner  and  humble  tastes. 
His  mother  was  of  Highland 
birth.  Probably  the  boy  inher- 
ited much  of  his  love  of  adven- 
ture and  daring  spirit  from  his 
Highland  ancestors.  His  child- 
hood was  brief.  His  school  days  were  few,  for  at  the  age 
of  twelve  John  Paul  had  learned  to  manage  a  fishing  boat 
in  very  rough  weather  off  the  Scottish  coasts  —  an  exercise 
that  certainly  could  not  be  called  child's  play. 

John   Paul's   eldest   brother,    William,    had    some   years 
before  been  adopted  by  a  distant  relative,  William  Jones, 

103 


John  Paul  Jones 


104  JOHN   PAUL  JONES 

a  Virginia  planter,  and  had  taken  the  name  of  William 
Paul  Jones.  When  John  Paul  was  thirteen  he  was  bound 
as  shipmaster's  apprentice  to  James  Younger,  owner  of  the 
Friendship.  His  first  long  sea  voyage  was  to  Virginia  in 
1760  for  a  cargo  of  tobacco.  On  this  trip  he  met  for  the  first 
time  his  brother  William.  The  old  planter,  William  Jones, 
took  a  fancy  to  the  thirteen-year-old  lad  and  wanted  to  adopt 
him,  but  the  boy  preferred  the  sailor's  life.  He  remained  with 
Mr.  Younger  four  years,  and  made  several  voyages  to  the 
West  Indies  and  to  the  coasts  of  Africa.  Before  he  was 
twenty,  he  was  made  captain.  The  most  profitable  form  of 
traffic  was  that  in  negroes  taken  from  Africa  and  sold  as 
slaves  in  the  South.  Our  young  captain  disliked  this  so  that 
early  in  his  career  he  absolutely  refused  to  have  anything  to 
do  with  such  business. 

During  these  years,  John  Paul  visited  many  cities  and  met 
many  merchants  and  bankers.  His  business  sense  was  keen, 
and  as  his  grasp  of  foreign  languages  was  also  quick,  he 
became  an  excellent  student  of  French.  In  fact,  he  knew  it 
so  well  that  he  wrote  in  it  quite  as  readily  as  in  English.  It 
is  interesting  that  our  knowledge  of  him  to-day  is  largely 
gained  from  his  French  papers. 

In  1773  his  brother  in  Virginia  died,  and  he  then  went  to 
settle  the  estate.  The  life  of  the  planter  appealed  to  him,  so 
he  remained  and  became  a  genuine  American.  Soon  after 
this,  William  Jones,  the  old  gentleman  who  had  adopted  his 
brother,  died  and  left  his  property  to  John  Paul,  provided 
he  took  the  name  of  Jones.  From  this  time  he  was  known  as 
John  Paul  Jones  and  as  such  became  famous. 

In  the  summer  of  1775  the  Continental  Congress  deter- 
mined to  create  a  naval  force  and  sent  for  Captain  John 
Paul  Jones  to  tell  them  what  kind  of  ships  were  best  and 


THE  NAVY  IN   THE  REVOLUTION 


I05 


what  qualities  were  necessary  for  a  naval  commander.  They 
also  asked  his  aid  in  purchasing  ships.  Although  he  was  but 
twenty-eight,  his  judgment  was  sound  on  these  questions  and 
was  followed  by  Congress  so  far  as  their  money  would  allow. 
By  December,  Congress  had  succeeded  in  getting  five 
vessels,  and  Jones  was  made 
first  lieutenant  of  one  called 
Alfred.  It  was  on  this  ship  the 
following  November  (1776), 
that  Jones  with  his  own  hands 
raised  the  first  American  na- 
val flag.  This  flag  consisted 
of  thirteen  stripes,  and  instead 
of  stars  there  was  a  pine  tree, 
at  the  base  of  which  was 
coiled  a  snake  with  the  words: 

"  Don't  tread  On  me."      Two  The  First  Naval  Flag 

years  later  his  ship  received  from  a  French  commander  the 
first  salute  ever  given  to  an  American  flag  by  a  foreign  man- 
of-war. 

Congress,  for  political  reasons,  put  Commodore  Hopkins, 
a  man  of  less  experience,  in  command  of  the  first  fleet.  In 
February,  1776,  the  little  fleet  went  to  Nassau  on  the  island  of 
New  Providence  in  the  Bahama  group  (about  200  miles  from 
the  coast  of  southern  Florida),  where  was  collected  a  large 
amount  of  military  stores.  The  town  was  poorly  defended, 
and  was  captured  with  little  trouble.  The  Americans  secured 
88  cannon,  15  large  mortars,  11,000  rounds  of  shot,  and  20 
casks  of  powder,  and  sailed  home  with  their  precious  cargo. 
After  this  cruise  Captain  Jones  was  given  an  independent 
command,  and  whatever  he  undertook  always  had  a  dash  and 
daring  which  made  it  most  thrilling. 


:o6 


JOHN  PAUL  JONES 


American  Sea- 
man 


One  of  the  first  expeditions  was  against  the  Cape  Breton 
fisheries.  He  found  three  English  schooners  in  a  harbor. 
He  sank  one  and  burned  another,  after  trans- 
ferring the  cargo  to  the  third.  When  this  was 
done,  he  learned  that  nine  other  English  boats 
were  on  the  other  side  of  the  bay.  The  daunt- 
less captain  cornered  these  boats  and  told  the 
crews  that  if  they  would  help  him  fit  out  such 
of  the  vessels  as  he  wished  for  his  use,  he  would 
let  them  return  to  England  in  safety.  They 
set  to  work  and  helped  him,  and  then  he  sent 
the  crews  off  to  England  in  three  small  vessels 
that  he  did  not  care  for.  In  six  weeks,  without 
bloodshed,  he  had  broken  up  the  Cape  Breton 
fishing,  had  captured  valuable  cargoes,  and  had  taken  sixteen 
vessels,  eight  of  which  he  destroyed  while  the  others  were 
refitted  and  added  to  the  American  service. 

Captain  Jones  was  a  shrewd  and  skillful 
sailor.  He  knew  that  his  ships  were  not  armed 
heavily  enough  to  engage  the  English  ships  in 
battle,  so  he  confined  his  work  to  intercepting 
supply  boats  in  or  near  the  harbors.  Once 
finding  a  provision  boat  aground  at  the  en- 
trance to  a  harbor,  he  stole  up  and  burned  it. 
At  another  time  he  captured  a  boat  loaded  with 
clothing  and  ammunition  for  the  English  army. 
These  supplies  were  turned  over  to  Washing- 
ton's soldiers,  who  greatly  needed  them.  He 
seized  vessels  loaded  with  coal  and  towed  them  to  his  own 
stations.  All  of  these  enterprises  were  on  a  small  scale,  but 
they  served  steadily  to  cripple  the  English  and  to  add  a  little 
to  the  resources  of  the  Americans. 


American  Marine 


THE  NAVY  IN  THE  REVOLUTION  107 

After  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  in  October,  1777,  France 
became  an  ally  of  America.  So  in  1778,  when  Jones  was 
sent  to  prowl  around  the  British  coast,  he  used  that  country 
as  the  base  from  which  to  make  his  raids.  His  ships  were 
small  and  swift.  England  never  dreamed  that  an  American 
ship  would  have  the  audacity  to  venture  near  her  shore,  so  at 
first  she  was  off  her  guard.  One  day  Jones  met  a  ship  with 
a  cargo  of  flax  crossing  the  English  Channel.  He  took  it,  sent 
the  crew  to  France,  and  sank  the  ship.  If  he  overhauled  a 
ship  having  a  valuable  cargo,  it  was  placed  under  proper  com- 
mand and  sent  to  France,  while  he  hurried  on  his  way.  At 
one  time,  while  in  command  of  the  Ranger,  he  slipped  into  the 
harbor  of  Whitehaven,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  England, 
set  fire  to  the  shipping  there,  and  was  out  and  far  on  his  way 
before  the  fire  was  discovered. 

At  another  time  he  landed,  seized  a  nobleman,  and  took 
him  on  board  ship,  without  injury  or  discourtesy,  to  hold  in 
exchange  for  some  prisoner.  In  all  these  activities,  Jones 
was  never  known  to  show  cruel  treatment  to  anyone,  not 
even  to  the  crews  of  captured  vessels. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  minister  to  France,  had  supervision 
of  all  the  naval  affairs  of  the  colonies.  Through  his  influ- 
ence, several  excellent  ships  of  French  build  were  secured. 
One  of  these  in  1779  was  assigned  to  Captain  Jones.  He  at 
once  renamed  it  Bon  Homme  Richard  as  a  compliment  to 
Franklin,  the  author  of  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac."  It  was 
this  ship  that  wron  the  famous  battle  with  the  Serapis. 

On  September  17,  1779,  Jones  with  his  little  squadron  of 
four  ships  attempted  to  enter  the  harbor  of  Leith,  Scotland, 
but  a  heavy  gale  prevented.  Scott,  who  was  a  boy  at  the 
time,  has  described  the  event  in  "Waverley."  He  says,  "A 
steady  and  powerful  west  wind  settled  the  matter  by  sweep- 


io8 


JOHN   PAUL  JONES 


ing  Paul  Jones  and  his  vessels  out  of  the  Firth."  A  few  days 
later,  Captain  Jones  destroyed  several  vessels  in  the  Humber 
River.  On  September  23,  he  caught  sight  of  a  fleet  of  forty 
merchant  vessels  protected  by  the  Serapis  off  Flamborough 
Head,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  England.  Captain  Jones 
ordered  his  vessels  to  give  chase.  The  merchant  vessels 
hurried  out  of  the  way,  but  the  Serapis  accepted  his  chal- 
lenge. 
The  fight  began  at  half  past  seven  in  the  evening,  and  lasted 


The  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  the  Serapis 

four  hours.  The  Serapis  had  heavier  guns,  and  to  nullify 
their  terrible  work  Captain  Jones  grappled  her  and  lashed 
the  two  ships  together  side  by  side.  The  firing  was  furious 
and  deadly.  When  the  Richard  began  to  leak  Jones  released 
over  a  hundred  prisoners  and  made  them  work  at  the  pumps. 
The  firing  was  so  incessant  that  the  men  were  almost  crazed. 
The  powder  boys  on  board  the  Serapis,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  bring  up  the  cartridges  for  the  gunners,  became  so  fright- 


THE   NAVY   IN   THE    REVOLUTION  IO9 

ened  that  they  flung  some  cartridges  on  deck  and  fled  to  cover. 
A  hand  grenade  thrown  from  the  Richard  set  fire  to  them, 
and  the  explosion  was  awful.  Both  ships  were  on  fire,  but 
fire  could  be  checked  more  easily  than  the  terrible  rents  in 
the  hulls  could  be  mended. 

Finally,  about  midnight,  the  brave  commander  of  the 
Scrapis  saw  that  all  was  lost  for  him,  and  with  his  own  hands 
he  struck  his  flag.  Captain  Jones  then  took  possession  of  the 
Serapis,  for  the  Richard  had  three  feet  of  water  in  the  hold. 

The  rest  of  the  night  was  spent  in  getting  the  wounded 
removed  to  safety  and  in  trying  to  keep  the  Richard  afloat. 
The  next  day  she  had  to  be  abandoned.  Captain  Jones 
wrote:  "A  little  after  ten  o'clock  I  saw,  with  inexpressible 
grief,  the  last  glimpse  of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard.  No  lives 
were  lost  as  the  boat  went  down."  Captain  Jones  tried  to 
reach  a  French  port  with  the  Serapis  and  his  500  prisoners, 
but  the  crippled  condition  of  the  captive  ship  made  a  stop  in 
Holland  necessary. 

This  victory  was  a  marvel  to  all  Europe.  Respect  for 
America  grew.  Captain  Jones  was  the  hero  of  the  day.  The 
king  of  France  made  him  a  Knight  of  the  Order  of  Merit,  and 
gave  him  a  gold  sword.  The  captain  tried  to  exchange  his 
prisoners,  including  the  commander  of  the  Serapis,  for  the 
Americans  kept  in  English  dungeons,  but  for  months  the 
offer  was  rejected.  It  is  estimated  that  he  had  taken  or 
destroyed  a  hundred  English  vessels  during  his  three  years  on 
the  sea. 

Early  in  1781  Captain  John  Paul  Jones  returned  to  America, 
where  Congress  and  the  people  in  many  ways  showed  their 
gratitude  for  his  faithful  work. 

In  1787,  the  Revolutionary  War  being  over,  he  entered  the 
service  of  Russia  as  rear  admiral  and  won  a  great  victory 


HO  JOHN  PAUL  JONES 

over  the  Turks.  Shortly  afterward,  he  returned  to  America 
and  took  up  the  life  of  a  planter.  Although  he  had  never 
married,  his  home  was  made  beautiful  and  hospitable,  but 
he  did  not  remain  long  in  it.  He  was  appointed  consul  to 
Algiers  in  1792,  but  died  in  Paris,  on  his  way  thither,  at  the 
age  of  forty-five.  He  was  given  a  stately  funeral  and  was 
buried  in  Paris.  In  the  summer  of  1905,  one  hundred  and 
thirteen  years  later,  his  body  was  brought  to  America  and 
placed  in  a  tomb  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  the  seat  of  Amer- 
ica's Naval  Academy. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Acquainted  with  the  sea  as  a  young  boy.  Served 
four  years  a  shipmaster's  apprentice.  In  1773  went  to  Virginia,  was 
made  William  Jones's  heir,  and  became  John  Paul  Jones.  Entered 
naval  sen-ice  of  the  colonies.  Captured  many  English  vessels.  Bon 
Homme  Richard  and  Serapis.    America's  debt  to  him. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Imagine  you  are  a  member  of  the  crew  on 
the  Bon  Homme  Richard;  describe  your  experiences.  II.  Write  a  para- 
graph stating  why  the  capture  of  merchant  vessels  is  good  warfare. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Nassau,  Whitehaven,  Flamborough  Head. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Abbott,  "Blue  Jackets  of  '76,"  pp.  83-154;  Beebe,  "Four 
American  Naval  Heroes,"  pp.  17-68. 

Biography.  —  Abbott,  "Paul  Jones";  Brady,  "Paul  Jones";  Sewell, 
"Paul  Jones";  Hapgood,  "Paul  Jones." 

Fiction.  —  Cooper,  "The  Pilot." 


THE  CRITICAL  PERIOD 

When  the  colonies  resolved  to  resist  the  tyranny  of  the 
mother  country,  they  saw  that  there  must  be  some  central 
authority  to  direct  this  resistance.  Their  delegates  had  met 
in  conventions  to  consider  plans  of  union,  and  from  these 
conventions  had  issued  protests  to  the  king  and  appeals  to 
the  colonists.  How  this  growing  spirit  of  freedom  resulted 
in  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  severing  the  ties  which 
bound  us  to  England,  will  be  told  in  the  life  of  Jefferson. 

We  ought  now  to  study  the  form  of  government  under 
which  the  war  for  independence  was  fought.  The  directing 
power  was  the  Continental  Congress,  consisting  of  delegates 
from  each  of  the  colonies.  This  was  merely  an  advisory 
body,  whom  the  people  trusted  and  generally  obeyed  as  long 
as  there  was  an  enemy  to  fight.  So  this  Congress  raised 
armies,  elected  commanding  generals,  and  waged  war,  by 
common  consent. 

It  also  sought  to  form  a  loose  union  of  the  colonies,  and  so 
drafted,  in  1777,  an  agreement  known  as  the  Articles  of 
Confederation.  By  this  instrument,  a  general  government 
was  created,  consisting  only  of  a  lawmaking  department  with 
such  powers  as  the  Congress  was  already  exercising,  but  with 
no  executive  officers  to  enforce  its  laws  and  with  no  system  of 
courts  to  interpret  them.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  were 
finally  adopted  in  1781  by  the  consent  of  all  the  colonies, 
which  were  now  states,  since  all  of  them  had  formed  inde- 
pendent governments.     It  must  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that 

in 


112  THE   CRITICAL   PERIOD 

none  of  these  states  surrendered  any  of  their  sovereign  powers 
when  they  entered  the  Confederation.  They  simply  joined 
together  in  a  league  of  friendship  for  common  defense.  Dur- 
ing the  actual  progress  of  the  war  the  people  did  not  fully 
realize  how  weak  and  inadequate  was  this  form  of  government. 
After  its  close,  the  need  of  united  action  was  less  apparent, 
though  none  the  less  real.  The  Articles  of  Confederation 
gave  Congress  the  power  to  regulate  commerce  and  to  collect 
revenue  through  port  duties.  It  could  issue  paper  money,  and 
it  did  so  as  fast  as  the  printing  presses  could  turn  the  currency 
out,  but  the  actual  value  of  the  money  so  issued  became  smaller 
and  smaller  each  year.  When  it  needed  funds  for  its  main- 
tenance, Congress  could  levy  upon  each  state  its  share  of 
the  expenses,  but  it  had  no  power  to  enforce  the  collection 
of  these  levies.  It  had  great  difficulty  in  persuading  them  to 
give  money,  and  it  had  practically  no  other  way  to  get  funds. 
So  the  general  government  came  to  be  more  and  more 
distrusted,  while  the  state  governments  increased  in  power 
and  influence.  This  led  to  serious  disputes  between  states 
in  matters  of  trade  and  commerce.  Each  state,  exercising 
the  right  to  levy  such  duties  as  it  saw  fit,  built  up  a  system 
of  revenue  duties  for  its  own  benefit,  at  the  expense  of  its 
neighbors.  Thus,  New  York  taxed  firewood  brought  within 
its  borders  from  Connecticut  and  dairy  products  from  New 
Jersey,  and  the  latter  state  in  retaliation  imposed  a  tax  of 
$1800  upon  a  lighthouse  belonging  to  New  York  but  situated 
on  the  Jersey  shore.  The  spirit  of  unity,  which  had  drawn 
the  people  together,  was  fast  disappearing.  The  war  had 
exhausted  the  resources  of  the  people,  taxes  were  heavy,  and 
the  purchase  of  manufactured  goods  from  abroad  had  drained 
the  country  of  its  hard  money,  for  foreign  nations  demanded 
gold  and  silver  in  payment  for  the  goods  they  sold  us. 


ARTICLES   OF   CONFEDERATION 


IJ3 


It  was  a  critical  period.  Men  began  to  feel  that  the  liberty, 
for  which  they  had  fought  and  had  sacrificed  so  much,  would 
be  lost.  Thomas  Paine,  a  famous  writer  of  the  Revolution, 
in  the  last  number  of  his  paper,  "The  Crisis,"  issued  when 
the  war  was  ended,  had  said  that  the  times  that  tried  men's 
souls  had  passed  —  little  realizing  that  there  still  remained  for 
the  American  people  a 
task  fully  as  great  as 
that  of  winning  their  in- 
dependence. 

But  before  we  tell 
the  story  of  how  nobly 
this  was  accomplished 
through  the  wisdom  of 
our  fathers  in  framing 
our  Constitution,  let  us 
consider  the  greatest 
legislative  act  passed  by 
Congress  under  the  Ar- 
ticles of  Confederation. 
By  the  treaty  of  1783, 
all  that  rich  and  fertile 
country  north  of  the 
Ohio,  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  had  been  surrendered 
by  England  to  the  states.  Four  of  these  states  claimed  a 
portion  of  this  vast  territory;  Massachusetts  and  Connecti- 
cut b'sing  their  claims  upon  the  provisions  of  their  charters, 
New  V'ork  upon  a  treaty  with  the  Iroquois  Indians,  and  Vir- 
ginia upon  its  original  charter  of  1609  and  upon  the  military 
expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark  in  the  Revolution.  It  was 
felt,  however,  that  inasmuch  as  this  region  was  one  of  the  fruits 


The  Famous  Liberty  Bell 

(Hung  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  House, 

Philadelphia) 


114  THE   CRITICAL   PERIOD 

of  our  victory  over  England,  all  of  the  states  had  an  interest  in 
it.  Finally,  the  states  claiming  ownership  by  virtue  of  charter 
rights  or  otherwise,  consented  to  cede  their  claims  to  the  gen- 
eral government,  and  in  1787  the  Northwest  Territory  was 
formed.  The  act  organizing  a  territorial  form  of  government 
was  called  the  Ordinance  of  1787  and  has  been  a  model  for 
the  governments  of  almost  all  of  the  territories  created  since 
that  time.  It  provided  for  freedom  of  religion,  for  civil  lib- 
erty, for  the  encouragement  of  education,  and  forbade  the 
establishment  of  slavery  within  its  borders.  This  wise  leg- 
islation is  one  of  the  greatest  acts  in  American  history. 

We  come  now  to  the  story  of  the  peaceful  struggle  through 
which  the  dangers  of  this  critical  period  were  averted  and  a 
stronger  government  was  formed. 

It  was  a  contest  of  ideas  and  not  of  arms,  and  the  men  who 
waged  it  successfully  are  entitled  to  the  respect  of  all  true 
Americans.  The  weakness  of  the  confederated  government 
led  to  the  calling  of  a  convention  to  remedy  its  defects.  This 
convention  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1787,  and  among  its  mem- 
bers were  many  leaders  of  the  people,  men  who  had  become  fa- 
mous during  the  Revolution.  Among  these  were  Washington, 
Franklin,  Hamilton,  and  Madison.  Not  all  the  great  men 
of  the  nation  were  present.  John  Adams  and  Jefferson  were 
representing  us  abroad.  John  Jay  was  our  Secretary  for 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  Samuel  Adams  and  Patrick  Henry  were 
not  in  sympathy  with  the  purpose  for  which  the  convention 
was  called.  Nevertheless,  twelve  of  the  states  sent  to  the 
convention  their  ablest  available  men. 

Its  meetings  were  held  in  Philadelphia  with  Washington 
as  the  presiding  officer,  and  the  members  soon  decided  to 
cast  aside  the  Articles  of  Confederation  and  to  strike  directly 
at  the  root  of  the  difficulty  by  drafting  a  new  Constitution. 


THE  CONSTITUTION  115 

Difficulties  quickly  arose  among  the  members  of  the  con- 
vention. There  were  disagreements  about  many  things, 
but  these  were  gradually  smoothed  over.  Let  us  see 
how  the  Constitution  as  finally  agreed  upon  remedied  the 
defective  government  which  existed  under  the  Articles  of 
Confederation.  First:  It  provided  for  three  departments  of 
government,  a  legislative  or  lawmaking  division,  an  execu- 
tive or  law  enforcing  power,  and  a  judicial  or  law  interpreting 
department. 

Second:  It  gave  to  the  new  government  the  power  to 
regulate  commerce,  to  coin  money,  to  levy  and  collect  taxes, 
to  wage  war,  and  to  provide  for  the  common  defense. 

Third:  Such  powers  as  wrere  expressly  granted  it  were 
denied  to  the  states,  thus  making  it,  and  not  the  states, 
supreme. 

Fourth:  It  operated  upon  individuals  and  not  upon  states. 
Henceforth  a  man's  first  duty  was  to  the  nation  and  not  to 
the  state  in  which  he  lived.  This  did  not  mean  that  the 
states  had  no  authority:  within  their  own  borders  they  were 
supreme,  subject  only  to  the  laws  of  the  nation. 

Thus  by  this  Constitution,  which  Gladstone  has  called 
"the  most  wonderful  document  ever  struck  off  at  a  given 
time  by  the  brain  and  purpose  of  man,"  a  new  nation  wras 
created  by  the  inseparable  union  of  sovereign  states,  each 
giving  up  for  the  common  good  those  powers  of  government 
which  affected  all. 

The  work  of  the  constitutional  convention  was  submitted 
to  conventions  in  each  of  the  states  and  was  in  time  ratified 
by  all.  As  soon  as  nine  of  the  states  had  so  ratified  it,  steps 
were  taken  to  organize  the  new  government.  Washington 
was  elected  President,  and  John  Adams  Vice  President.  We 
have  told,  in  the  life  of  the  former,  the  story  of  his  inaugura- 


n6 


THE    CRITICAL   PERIOD 


tion  at  New  York;  and  in  the  lives  of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton 
we  shall  see  how  the  difficulties  which  confronted  the  new 
government  were  met. 

Washington  selected  as  members  of  his  cabinet  —  or  advis- 
ory board  —  wise  and 
patriotic  men.  Be- 
sides Jefferson,  who 
was  made  Secretary 
of  State,  and  Hamil- 
ton, who  was  made 
Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  Washing- 
ton chose  Edmund 
Randolph  of  Virginia 
as  Attorney-General, 
and  Henry  Knox,  a 
brave  revolutionary 
general,  as  Secretary 
of  War. 

A  judicial  depart- 
ment was  also  created 
at  once,  and  the  man 
chosen  as  its  Chief 
Justice  was  John  Jay,  one  of  New  York's  most  distinguished 
citizens,  a  man  of  spotless  integrity  and  of  lofty  ideals. 

With  these  men  of  ability  and  of  patriotic  spirit  as  leaders, 
the  government  of  the  United  States  began  its  work.  Let  us 
turn  now  to  the  lives  of  Jefferson  and  of  Hamilton  in  order 
that  we  may  see  how  the  young  Republic  took  its  place  in  the 
world,  winning  the  respect  of  other  nations  and  the  confidence 
and  affection  of  its  own  people. 


Members  of  the  First  Cabinet 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 

In  the  early  days  of  Virginia  there  came  to  that  colony, 
from  Wales,  a  family  named  Jefferson. 

The  most  famous  descendant  of  this  family  was  the  great 
statesman,  Thomas  Jefferson.  He  was  born  at  Shadwell, 
near  Charlottesville,  Virginia,  April  13,  1743.  His  father 
was  a  prosperous  planter,  owning  an  estate  of  2000  acres, 
and  his  mother  was  a  member  of  the  famous  Randolph 
family.  The  little  boy  was  carefully  trained  by  his  parents. 
Although  books  were  not  plentiful  in  the  colony,  they  had  a 
good  library,  and  Thomas  soon  learned  to  enjoy  it.  Like 
Washington,  young  Jefferson  also  was  fond  of  outdoor 
sports.  He  was  a  keen  hunter  and  a  skillful  horseman. 
When  nine  years  of  age,  he  was  sent  to  board  with  a  minister 
in  the  neighborhood,  where  he  studied  Greek,  Latin,  and 
French.  His  father  guided  his  education  and  saw  that  he 
was  also  thoroughly  taught  arithmetic  and  bookkeeping. 
Thomas  was  fond  of  music  and  became  a  good  violin  player. 
For  several  years,  it  is  said,  he  used  to  practice  three  hours  a 
day.  His  father  died  when  his  son  was  but  fourteen,  leaving 
to  Thomas  the  family  estate  at  Shadwell.  Young  Jefferson 
was  ready  for  college  at  seventeen,  and  entered  William  and 
Mary  College  in  Williamsburg  in  1760. 

He  was  a  thin,  slender  boy,  somewhat  tall  for  his  age,  but 
his  mind  had  grown  as  rapidly  as  his  body,  and  he  soon  became 
a  leader  in  his  classes.  Doubtless  his  studious  nature,  his 
habits  of  industry,  and  his  fondness  for  good  books,  ail  of 

MAK.    &  DEF.  —  8  117 


Il8  THOMAS   JEFFERSON 

which  had  marked  him  as  an  unusual  child,  had  as  much  to 
do  with  his  attaining  high  rank  in  college  as  did  the  natural 
keenness  of  intellect  which  he  possessed.  One  of  the  profes- 
sors was  especially  attracted  to  the  brilliant  young  student 
and  took  great  pride  in  guiding  his  work.  Thomas  found 
time  also  to  enter  into  the  social  life  of  the  little  college  town, 
and  found  many  helpful  acquaintances  among  the  leading 
families  there.  After  two  years  of  college  life,  he  began,  in 
1763,  the  study  of  law.  The  next  year  he  became  of  age,  and 
to  celebrate  that  event  he  planted  a  beautiful  avenue  of  trees 
near  his  home.     Some  of  these  trees  are  still  standing. 

Among  his  friends  at  this  time  wras  a  young  lawyer  named 
Patrick  Henry.  Their  holidays  were  often  spent  together, 
and  they  were  close  companions.  In  1765,  Henry  was  elected 
to  the  House  of  Burgesses  then  meeting  at  Williamsburg,  and 
Jefferson  heard  his  friend  make  before  that  body  the  famous 
speech  against  the  Stamp  Act.  You  have  read  in  the  life 
of  Patrick  Henry  the  story  of  this  wonderful  appeal  for  jus- 
tice. 

Soon  after  this,  Jefferson  commenced  the  practice  of  law, 
and  was  successful  in  his  profession.  In  1769  he  became 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and  served  almost 
continuously  until  the  Revolution.  At  this  period  of  his 
life,  he  found  time  to  look  after  the  affairs  of  his  es- 
tate, and  was  quite  as  proud  of  being  a  prosperous  farmer 
as  he  was  of  being  a  successful  professional  man.  He  culti- 
vated his  farms  carefully,  and  experimented  in  raising  all  the 
trees  and  shrubs  that  would  stand  the  Virginia  climate.  He 
rebuilt  the  old  homestead  and  called  it  Monticello.  Here  in 
the  winter  of  1772  Jefferson  brought  his  young  bride,  and 
here,  whenever  freed  from  the  cares  of  public  life,  he  retired 
for  rest   and   recreation.      The  memories  of  many  happy 


EARLY    LIFE 


ug 


days  cluster  around  the  home  life  of  Jefferson  at  Monti 
cello. 

In  1775  a  convention  was  held  in  Richmond  to  elect 
delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress.  Jefferson  and  Henry 
were  both  members  of  this  convention,  and  again  the  formei 
had  an  opportunity  to  hear  his  friend  plead  for  the  cause  ol 
freedom  in  the  stir- 
ring speech  which 
closed  with  the  words, 
"I  know  not  what 
course  others  may 
take,  but  as  for  me, 
give  me  liberty  or  give 
me  death." 

It  was  not  long  be- 
fore Jefferson  was 
called  to  serve  his 
country  in  a  wider 
field.  When  Washington  was  made  commander  in  chief  of 
the  army,  his  place  in  the  Continental  Congress  was  taken  by 
Jefferson,  who  became  at  once  a  prominent  and  useful  mem- 
ber of  that  body. 

The  Americans  were  beginning  to  realize  that  the  war  upon 
which  they  had  entered,  was  brought  about  largely  through 
the  stubbornness  of  King  George  III.  Their  appeals  to  him 
had  been  treated  with  contempt.  He  had  shown  in  every 
way  possible  that  he  intended  to  rule  the  colonies  selfishly 
and  absolutely.  Jefferson  expressed  the  sentiment  of  the 
American  people  forcibly  when  he  said,  "It  is  an  immense 
misfortune  to  the  whole  empire  to  have  such  a  king  at  such  a 
time.  We  are  told,  and  everything  proves  it  true,  that  he  is 
the  bitterest  enemy  we  have."     It  is  not  strange,  therefore, 


"  Monticello,"  the  Home  of  Jefferson 


120 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


that  Congress  now  determined  to  state  to  the  world  the  rea- 
sons why  the  colonies  thought  it  right  to  declare  themselves 
independent.  For  this  purpose,  a  committee  was  appointed 
in  June  of  the  year  1776.  Although  Jefferson  was  at  that 
time  one  of  the  youngest  members  of  Congress,  his  associates 

had  such  confidence 
in  his  ability  that  they 
made  him  chairman 
of  this  committee. 
The  other  members 
were  Benjamin 
Franklin  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, John  Adams  of 
Massachusetts,  Roger 
Sherman  of  Connect- 
icut, and  Robert  R. 
Livingston  of  New 
York.  At  their  re- 
quest, Jefferson  pre- 
pared a  statement  of 
their  views  regarding 
the  harsh  measures  of 
the  English  king  and 
his  Parliament.  So  it 
was  that  he  had  the 
honor  of  writing  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
original  draft,  in  his  handwriting,  was  presented  to  the  com- 
mittee, and  some  slight  changes  in  its  wording  were  made  by 
Franklin  and  Adams.  It  was  then  ready  for  consideration 
by  Congress. 

The  meetings  of  that  body  were  held  in  Philadelphia  in 
the  Pennsylvania  State  House,  a  plain  brick  building  stand- 


Committee  to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of 
Independence 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE 


121 


ing  on  Chestnut  Street.  Here,  during  the  first  days  of  July, 
the  proposed  Declaration  was  warmly  discussed.  Not  all 
the  members  were  sure  that  the  time  had  come  to  break  the 
ties  which  bound  them  to  the  mother  country.  Finally,  on  the 
2nd,  a  majority  was  convinced  and  a  resolution  was  adopted 
briefly  declaring  the  independence  of  the  colonies.  For  two 
days  more,  Congress  considered  the  form  of  Jefferson's 
Declaration.  It  modified  the  wording  of  some  of  the  sentences 
and  struck  out  his  bitter  denunciation  of  the  king's  attitude 
toward  the  slave  trade.    When  these  changes  had  been  made, 

Congress  took  finar  action, 
and  on  the  evening  of 
July  4,  1776,  this  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  was 
adopted  by  the  unanimous 
consent  of  twelve  of  the 
colonies  (p.  337).  The 
weather  was  sultry,  and 
through  the  open  windows 
came    a    swarm   of    flies. 


Announcing  the  Declaration  of  Independence 


122  THOMAS   JEFFERSON 

The  gentlemen  of  that  day  dressed  in  knee  breeches  and  silk 
stockings,  and  the  flies  must  have  annoyed  them  as  they  sat 
through  the  long  debates.  Possibly  this  may  have  hastened 
the  decision  of  some  of  the  delegates  who  had  hesitated  to 
take  the  final  step. 

At  once  measures  were  taken  to  spread  the  glad  news. 
Postriders  were  dispatched  in  haste  to  carry  the  news  to  all 
the  colonies.  The  Declaration  was  read  from  the  pulpits  and 
to  the  army,  and  was  everywhere  received  with  great  joy. 
In  New  York,  the  people  in  their  enthusiasm  pulled  down  a 
leaden  statue  of  George  III,  which  stood  in  Bowling  Green 
Park,  and  melted  it  into  bullets  for  the  army.  So,  amid  the 
ringing  of  bells,  the  cheers  of  the  people,  and  the  boom  of 
cannon,  a  new  nation  was  born.  We  celebrate  its  birthday 
each  year  on  the  4th  of  July,  for  that  is  the  day  when  Congress 
formally  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
original  copy  was  signed  by  John  Hancock,  the  president  of 
Congress,  and  by  its  Secretary.  It  then  had  to  be  engrossed 
on  parchment,  and  when  that  was  done  all  the  members  of 
Congress  signed  the  great  document.  As  Hancock  wrote 
his  name  in  a  fine,  large  hand,  he  said,  "There,  John  Bull 
may  read  my  name  without  spectacles." 

Jefferson  declined  a  reelection  to  Congress  in  the  fall  of 
1776,  partly  because  of  the  illness  of  his  wife  and  partly 
because  his  large  estate  in  Virginia  needed  his  personal  care. 
He  consented,  however,  to  sit  again  in  the  Virginia  legisla- 
ture, because  he  was  greatly  interested  in  the  repeal  of  some 
laws  that  he  believed  unjust.  The  Virginia  colony,  more 
than  any  of  the  other  colonies,  followed  the  customs  and 
laws  of  England.  Like  the  mother  country,  she  had  an  Es- 
tablished Church  which  was  supported  by  general  taxation. 
Jefferson  thought  this  was  wrong,  and  secured  the  passage 


IN    VIRGINIA 


123 


of  a  law  giving  the  people  the  right  to  worship  in  churches 
not  supported  by  state  or  by  local  taxation. 

At  that  time,  also,  by  the  laws  of  inheritance,  a  man's 
property  at  his  death  was  given  to  his  eldest  son.  This 
law  was  unfair  to  the  other  members  of  the  family,  and, 
largely  through  Jefferson's  efforts,  was  repealed. 

Throughout  an  active  life  he  was  greatly  interested  in  the 
cause  of  education.  While  a  member  of  the  Virginia  legis- 
lature, he  advocated  a  system  of  general  education  by  which 


Library  of  the  University  of  Virginia  at  Charlottesville 

the  people  could  understand  and  use  rightly  the  blessings  of 
the  liberty  for  which  they  were  fighting.  Many  years  later, 
he  outlined  a  plan  for  common  schools,  academies,  and,  to 
crown  the  system,  a  State  University  to  be  supported  for  the 
main  part  by  the  people.  Although  he  did  not  succeed  in 
getting  Virginia  to  adopt  the  whole  of  the  scheme,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  inducing  the  legislature  to  accept  the  gift  of  Central 
College,  and  so  became  the  founder  in  181 8  of  the  University 
of  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville. 

In  1779,  Jefferson  was  elected  governor  of  Virginia,  and 


124  THOMAS  JEFFERSON 

served  for  two  years  while  that  state  was  the  seat  of  active 
warfare  between  the  British  and  the  Continental  forces. 

In  the  autumn  of  1782  a  great  sorrow  came  to  him.  His 
wife,  whom  he  loved  devotedly,  died;  and  Jefferson  was 
heartbroken.  He  had  several  times  been  offered  an  appoint- 
ment to  represent  the  colonies  at  the  court  of  France,  but  had 
refused  because  of  his  wife's  delicate  health.  He  was  now 
willing  to  go,  for  he  thought  that  in  the  change  of  scene  his 
grief  might  be  lessened.  So,  when  appointed  for  a  fourth  time 
to  a  foreign  mission,  he  accepted,  and  with  his  daughter  Mar- 
tha, whom  he  wished  to  have  educated  abroad,  he  set  sail  for 
Europe.  There  he  was  to  aid  Franklin  and  Adams  in  making 
treaties  of  commerce  with  the  European  nations.  In  1785, 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  France,  succeeding  Franklin. 
For  four  years  he  lived  in  Paris  in  a  fine  residence.  He 
learned  to  love  the  French  people,  and  was  able,  through  his 
cordial  relations  with  them,  to  render  his  country  great  serv- 
ice. He  used  to  send  to  the  American  schools  and  colleges 
all  the  new  books  of  Europe,  and  he  interested  himself  in  the 
arts  and  sciences  in  order  that  he  might  aid  America.  In 
1789,  while  home  on  a  visit,  Jefferson  was  asked  by  President 
Washington  to  be  Secretary  of  State  of  the  government  just  es- 
tablished under  the  Constitution.  Jefferson  consented,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  was  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  that  office. 

He  and  Hamilton,  who  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  did 
not  agree  very  well,  and  it  required  all  of  the  President's 
patience  and  tact  to  keep  peace  in  his  official  family.  Ham- 
ilton was  an  aristocrat  by  birth  and  education.  He  con- 
stantly strove  to  strengthen  the  powers  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment at  the  expense  of  the  states.  Jefferson,  on  the  other 
hand,  although  equally  well  born,  was  democratic  in  his 
tastes.     He  trusted  the  people  and  believed  in  state  rights. 


PRESIDENT 


125 


He  thought  that  a  strong  central  government  was  too  much 
like  a  monarchy.  Consequently,  the  measures  that  Hamilton 
proposed  and  which  we  now  know  were  necessary  in  order 
to  establish  firmly  the  credit  of  the  United  States  at  home 
and  abroad,  were  opposed  by  Jefferson.  But  his  long  resi- 
dence in  Europe,  his  liberal  education,  and  his  ability  as  a 
statesman  made  him  a  valuable  member  of  Washington's 
cabinet.  He  served  for  four  years,  and  then  returned  to  his 
home,  Monticello. 

In  1796  he  was  elected  Vice  President,  and  in  1800, 
President  of  the  United  States.  His  election  to  the  latter 
office  was  the  result  of  an  exciting  campaign.  There  was  a 
tie  between  the  leading  candidates,  Jefferson  and  Burr,  so 
the  choice  was  left  to  the  lower  house  of  Congress.  Fortu- 
nately for  the  welfare  of  the  country,  Jefferson  was  chosen, 
and  for  eight  years  he  made  a  most  efficient  President.  The 
capital  of  the  nation  had  been  removed  to  Washington,  and 
here  he  was  quietly  inaugurated.  He  disliked  all  pomp  and 
ceremony,  and  conducted  the  affairs  of  his  high  office  with 
the  utmost  simplicity.  He  dressed  plainly,  and  allowed  the 
people  to  show  him  no  honor  as  President  that  they  would 
not  show  him  as  a  private  citizen. 

The  most  important  event  of  his  administration  was  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana,  a  vast  territory  lying  between  the 
Mississippi  River  on  the  east  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  on 
the  west,  and  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Canada. 
This  great  domain  belonged  to  France,  and  the  French  Em- 
peror Napoleon  had  some  thought  of  establishing  a  great  sea- 
port at  New  Orleans.  Such  a  step  Jefferson  clearly  saw  would 
close  the  Mississippi  to  American  commerce.  Napoleon  was, 
however,  on  the  verge  of  a  war  with  England  and  needed 
money.     He  offered  to  sell  Louisiana  to  the  United  States, 


126 


THOMAS   JEFFERSON 


and  the  offer  was  at  once  accepted.  The  purchase  price  was 
$15,000,000,  a  little  less  than  three  cents  an  acre.  Thus  "at 
one  stroke  of  the  pen,"  as  Jefferson  said,  the  area  of  the 
United  States  was  more  than  doubled. 

The  new  territory  was  almost  an  unknown  land,  so,  in 
1804,  the  President  sent  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark 


The  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition 

to  explore  it  as  well  as  the  Oregon  country.  Starting  from 
the  log  village  of  St.  Louis,  they  ascended  the  Missouri 
River  to  its  source,  spent  the  summer  of  1805  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  discovered  the  rivers  which  bear  their  names,  and 
sailed  down  the  Columbia  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  After 
being  away  about  three  years,  they  returned  to  civilization 
and  reported  the  results  of  their  journey  to  Jefferson.  This 
daring  and  romantic  expedition  gave  us  a  broader  concep- 
tion of  the  vastness  of  our  new  possessions,  and  helped  to 
establish  our  claims,  in  later  days,  to  the  Oregon  country. 


PRESIDENT  I27 

After  he  had  finished  his  second  term  as  President,  Jeffer- 
son retired  to  his  home  in  Virginia.  For  over  forty  years  he 
had  served  his  country  almost  constantly,  and  he  hoped  now 
to  pass  the  declining  years  of  his  life  in  peace  and  quiet. 
His  beautiful  estate  at  Monticello  was  the  center  of  generous 
hospitality.  He  had  built  up  the  finest  private  library  in 
America,  and  here,  among  his  books  and  surrounded  by  his 
friends,  he  was  enabled  to  enjoy  a  well-earned  rest.  In  his 
private  life  and  in  his  habits  he  was  a  fine  example  of  Amer- 
ican manhood.  His  grandchildren,  who  lived  with  him, 
regarded  him  with  love  and  veneration.  After  his  retire- 
ment, many  of  his  former  political  enemies,  charmed  by  his 
hospitality,  his  great  courtesy,  and  his  sense  of  justice,  became 
his  warmest  friends.  For  fifteen  years  longer  the  "Sage  of 
Monticello,"  as  he  came  to  be  called,  lived,  honored  by  a 
grateful  nation.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1826,  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  he  died,  mourned 
by  the  whole  country.  In  his  desk  after  his  death  was  found 
a  paper  on  which  he  had  written  the  words  he  wished  engraved 
on  his  monument.    They  were  simply : 

uHere  was  Buried 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON, 

Author  of 

The  Declaration  of 

American  Independence, 

of 

the  Statute  of  Virginia  for 

Religious  Freedom; 

and 

Father  of  the 

University  of  Virginia." 


128  THOMAS    JEFFERSON 

For  these  acts,  and  not  for  the  high  offices  he  had  held  with 
such  honor,  he  wished  to  be  remembered.  The  idea  of  free- 
dom is  the  central  thought  of  all  three.  By  the  first  he  aided 
in  founding  a  new  nation;  by  the  second  he  gave  to  the 
people  of  Virginia  the  right  to  worship  as  they  pleased;  and 
by  the  third  he  opened  the  way  for  the  youth  of  the  land  to 
obtain  the  greatest  gift  of  freedom  —  a  good  education. 

Free  government,  free  faith,  free  thought,  these  were  the 
noblest  products  of  Jefferson's  mind,  and  for  these  he  will 
be  longest  remembered  by  mankind. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Early  life  and  education  of  Jefferson.  His  mar- 
riage and  home  life  at  Monticello.  Writing  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence; its  adoption.  Jefferson's  public  services  for  Virginia.  His 
career  as  a  statesman  and  as  President.    Jefferson  as  a  private  citizen. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  How  did  Jefferson's  early  training  fit  him  for 
a  useful  public  life?  IT.  What  influence  do  you  think  Patrick  Henry's 
speeches  had  upon  his  friend  Jefferson?  III.  Tell  the  story  of  the  mak- 
ing and  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  IV.  In  what  ways 
did  Jefferson  show  his  interest  in  education?  V.  Write  a  paragraph 
about  Jefferson's  life  abroad.  VI.  Draw  a  map  showing  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  and  on  it  trace  Lewis  and  Clark's  journey.  VII.  Why  was 
the  purchase  important?    VIII.  Describe  the  home  life  of  Jefferson. 

Map  Work.  '■ —  Locate  Charlottesville,  Williamsburg  (p.  92);  the  ap- 
proximate boundaries  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  (p.  304). 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Cooke,  "Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion,"  pp.  180-187; 
Hart  and  Hill,  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution,"  pp.  172-175. 

Biography.  —  Brooks,  "Century  Book  of  Famous  Americans," 
pp.  117-135;  Merwin,  "Thomas  Jefferson." 

Fiction.  —  Butterworth,  "In  the  Days  of  Jefferson";  Johnston, 
"Lewis  Rand";  Churchill,  "The  Crossing." 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


Washington  is  known  in  American  history  as  the  Father 
of  his  Country,  and  Alexander  Hamilton  may,  with  equal 
truth,  be  called  the  savior  of  its  credit,  for  in  his  fertile  brain 
originated  the  policies 
which  placed  the  finances 
of  the  new  nation  upon  a 
sound  basis. 

Hamilton's  birthplace 
was  on  the  island  of  Nevis, 
one  of  the  West  Indies. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is 
commonly  given  as  Janu- 
ary ii,  1757,  although 
writers  of  history  are  not 
agreed  upon  this  point. 
From  his  father,  a  young 
Scotch  merchant  of  the 
island,  he  inherited  studi- 
ous habits  and  an  unusual 
capacity  for  hard  work; 
while  from  his  mother, 
an  attractive  and  high- 
spirited  French  woman,  came  a  vigorous  and  brilliant  mind. 
By  the  death  of  his  parents,  Hamilton  was,  at  an  early  age, 
left  to  the  care  of  relatives.  He  was  fortunate  in  having  as 
his  tutor  and  friend  a  Presbyterian  minister  named  Hugh 

129 


Alexander  Hamilton 


130  ALEXANDER   HAMILTON 

Knox.  This  gifted  man  took  great  pride  in  guiding  the 
alert  mind  of  the  boy.  Hamilton  had  already  learned  from 
his  mother  to  speak  French  readily,  and  with  his  tutor  he 
studied  Latin  and  the  sciences,  and  read  all  the  books  he 
could  get.  The  orphan  boy's  proud  spirit  chafed  at  the 
thought  of  being  dependent  upon  others  for  support,  and  we 
next  find  him  in  the  counting  house  of  Mr.  Nicholas  Cruger, 
a  wealthy  merchant  of  one  of  the  neighboring  islands.  Here 
he  applied  himself  with  such  energy  and  intelligence  to  his 
duties,  that  it  was  not  long  before  Mr.  Cruger,  when  absent 
from  the  island,  trusted  him  with  complete  control  of  the 
business.  But  the  boy  was  not  content  with  this  life.  He 
loved  books  passionately  and  was  determined,  at  all  costs, 
to  get  an  education.  Finally,  friends  yielded  to  his  pleadings 
and  arranged  to  send  him  to  school  in  the  American  colonies. 

The  dearest  desires  of  Hamilton's  boyhood  were  realized 
when  he  entered  a  school  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  to 
fit  himself  for  college.  He  had  intended  to  enter  Princeton, 
but  its  rules  would  not  permit  him  to  advance  as  rapidly  as 
he  wished,  so  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1773  he  went 
instead  to  Kings  College  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

The  spirit  of  resistance  to  the  unjust  demands  of  the  mother 
country  had  already  spread  through  the  colonies.  In  New 
York,  as  elsewhere,  the  Patriots  had  formed  military  com- 
panies which  they  called  Sons  of  Liberty.  Public  meetings 
were  held  in  the  parks,  and  liberty  poles  erected.  One  of 
these  poles  in  New  York  had  been  cut  down  in  1770  by  the 
British  soldiers  on  guard  in  the  city,  and  this  led  to  a  fight 
between  the  soldiers  and  the  people.  It  has  been  called  the 
battle  of  Golden  Hill,  but  it  was  hardly  a  battle,  since  no  one 
was  killed  and  the  excitement  soon  died  down. 

But  the  spirit  of  the  colonists  was  again  aroused  when,  in 


CAUSES  OF   THE   REVOLUTION  13I 

1774,  England  tried  to  force  them  to  buy  taxed  tea.  In 
Boston,  a  party  of  Patriots  disguised  as  Indians  emptied  the 
tea  into  the  harbor;  and  in  New  York  the  captain  of  the 
British  ship  Nancy  was  not  allowed  to  land  his  cargo,  but  he 
and  his  ship  were  sent  back  to  England. 

While  these  stirring  events  were  happening  in  the  city, 
Hamilton  was  busily  engaged  trying  to  do  five  years  of  col- 
lege work  in  two.  But  a  young  man  of  his  impetuous  nature 
could  not  long  remain  neutral.  He  began  to  study  the  causes 
of  the  trouble  between  England  and  her  American  colonies. 
The  more  he  read  and  heard  about  taxation  without  rep- 
resentation, and  the  other  unjust  laws  England  was  trying 
to  force  the  colonies  to  accept,  the  more  certain  he  became 
that  the  Americans  wrere  justified  in  their  resistance.  He 
began  to  write  letters  to  the  papers,  and  pamphlets  in  which 
he  clearly  and  forcefully  defended  the  attitude  of  the  colonies. 
These  essays  wrere  so  remarkable  that  people  could  scarcely 
believe  they  were  written  by  a  mere  boy  of  eighteen.  On  one 
occasion,  when  a  great  mass  meeting  was  held  in  the  "  Fields," 
now  the  City  Hall  Park,  to  arouse  interest  in  the  American 
cause,  Hamilton  was  present.  The  speakers  seemed  to  be 
afraid  to  express  their  feelings  boldly,  and  there  was  little 
enthusiasm  until  the  young  college  student  pushed  his  way 
to  the  front  and,  mounting  the  platform,  gave  an  eloquent  and 
patriotic  speech  in  behalf  of  liberty.  From  this  time  on, 
Hamilton  was  firmly  committed  to  the  cause  of  freedom. 

He  organized  among  the  college  students  a  military  com- 
pany called  the  "Hearts  of  Oak."  The  members  of  the 
company  wore  green  uniforms,  and  on  each  leathern  cap  was 
inscribed  the  motto,  "Freedom  or  Death." 

We  may  be  sure  that  this  patriotic  activity  on  the  part  of 
the  boys  was  not  at  all  pleasing  to  Dr.  Cooper,  the  President 


132 


ALEXANDER    HAMILTON 


of  Kings  College,  who  was  strongly  English  in  his  sympa- 
thies. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  "Hearts  of  Oak"  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  do  something  more  than  to  drill  and  to  parade. 
They  were  ordered  to  remove  some  cannon  that  were 
placed  at  the  Battery.  While  they  were  doing  this,  a  boat- 
load of  soldiers  landed  from  the  Brit- 
ish warship  Asia,  which  was  anchored 
in  the  harbor.  A  fight  between  them 
and  the  militia  followed,  and  immedi- 
ately the  Asia  fired  upon  the  Patriots. 

As  a  result  of  this  attack,  the  whole 


city  was  aroused.  The 
Sons  of  Liberty  marched 
through  the  streets,  and 
burned  in  effigy  some  of  the 
loyalists,  or  Tories,  as  they 
were  called. 

By  nighttime,  the  crowd,  having  increased  to  a  mob,  sud- 
denly determined  to  capture  Dr.  Cooper,  who  was  one  of  the 
most  hated  among  the  loyalists.    Marching  to  the  college 


Hamilton  speaks  to  the  Mob 


THE    REVOLUTION  133 

buildings,  they  were  about  to  force  an  entrance  when  Hamil- 
ton, appearing  on  the  steps  above  them,  spoke  to  the  angry 
men  until  Dr.  Cooper  had  escaped  over  a  back  fence  and  was 
safely  on  his  way  to  the  Asia. 

A  company  of  artillery  was  now  formed  in  New  York  city, 
and  Hamilton,  then  only  nineteen  years  of  age,  was  given  its 
command.  With  eager  enthusiasm  he  gathered  recruits  and 
spent  all  his  money  on  equipping  his  company.  He  soon  had' 
a  body  of  men  so  well  trained  and  disciplined  that  it  attracted 
the  attention  of  General  Greene,  and  was  immediately  put 
at  work.  In  the  battle  of  Brooklyn  Heights  and  at  White 
Plains,  Hamilton's  artillery  took  part.  The  company  also 
aided  in  protecting  Washington's  retreat  through  New  Jersey, 
and  did  gallant  service  at  Trenton  and  at  Princeton. 

During  these  dark  days  Washington  came  to  know  and 
trust  the  young  artillery  captain  so  well  that  he  gave  him  an* 
appointment  as  aid-de-camp  on  his  staff.     Hamilton  now 
became  Washington's  private  secretary. 

In  his  new  office,  he  had  to  carry  messages  to  the  Continen- 
tal Congress,  attend  to  the  exchange  of  prisoners,  and  prepare 
Washington's  written  orders  to  the  army.  A  warm  friend- 
ship sprang  up  at  this  time  between  Hamilton  and  Lafayette. 
Both  spoke  French  readily,  and  they  passed  many  hours 
together  during  the  dreary  winter  at  Valley  Forge.  Hamilton 
was  already  known  among  the  men  of  the  army  as  the 
"little  lion,"  but  he  must  have  been  prouder  of  the  affec- 
tionate way  in  which  Washington  often  spoke  of  him  as  "my 
boy."  On  account  of  some  slight  misunderstanding,  in 
which  Hamilton  was  at  fault,  he  resigned  as  Washington's 
secretary.  But  he  did  not  retire  from  the  army,  for  at  York- 
town  he  commanded  a  corps  of  infantry  and  took  part  in  the 
movements  that  led    to  Cornwallis's  surrender   there.     In 

MAK.    &   DEF.  —  O 


134 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


1780  Hamilton  had  married  Elizabeth  Schuyler,  the  daughter 
of  General  Philip  Schuyler,  and  when  the  war  ended,  he 
went  to  Albany,  New  York,  with  his  family,  and  studied  law. 
He  was  soon  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  commenced  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession. 

There  was  plenty  for  a  young  lawyer  to  do.    Times  were 
bad  after  the  war,  the  country  was 
heavily  in  debt,  many  had  lost 

their  property,  and  business  had     |pp##  ^°-A<f(9f^/J^ 

ONE  'THIRlu  of 
a  DOLLAR,     ^ 

According 


-j -.....-, -,.-  ; 


-u  ,^?- 


||1  ^o./^04  'Fori]/  Dollars  !|| 

^-CjI       .^^n^*^*\.      "This  Bill  entitles1"" 
the  Bearer  to   re- 
ceive (port y  SuBu'SS 
■ly^frnTnitLfd  ^ct/izrj >  or 
ty%£fflk        '.'^-';sfeJthe<%&<  thereof  in 
"^f;^§8^  of  SXoer,   sc 
&,i',i-  yrv  eordin?  to  a  9i*foCu 

WSpt&AfcS.        Sept.  z6*t,   1778 


^February  17 


to  a  Reso- 
lution of 

Congress,)^ 

paficd  at 
PhUaielpbia]^ 
j  776.       B 


J  ONE  THIRD 


Continental  Currency 

to  be  built  up  anew.  To  meet  war  expenses,  Congress  had 
issued  paper  money  which  was  simply  the  government's  prom- 
ise to  pay  and  was  good  only  so  long  as  the  government's 
credit  was  good.  This  paper  money  became  worth  less  and 
less  until  it  was  almost  valueless.  The  phrase  "  not  worth  a 
Continental"  originated  then  and  showed  what  the  people 
thought  of  the  Continental  currency.  About  the  only  "  hard 
money,"  as  gold  and  silver  were  called,  in  the  country  were 
foreign  coins,  and  these  were  so  worn  and  mutilated  that  their 
value  was  uncertain.  The  different  states  also  issued  paper 
money  which  was  good  only  in  the  state  in  which  it  was 
issued.    In  fact,  there  were  almost  as  many  different  kinds 


THE   CONSTITUTION  135 

of  money  as  there  were  different  states.  But  the  chief  cause 
of  the  trouble  was,  as  many  wise  men  clearly  saw,  that  the 
states  were  too  loosely  banded  together. 

In  the  convention  which  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1787, 
Hamilton  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  debates.  At  last,  after  a  long  sum- 
mer's work,  a  Constitution  providing  for  a  stronger  cen- 
tral government  was  drafted,  and  the  labors  of  the  con- 
vention were  ended.  It  now  became  necessary  to  get 
the  states  to  adopt  the  Constitution.  Many  people  feared 
the  proposed  new  form  of  government  more  than  they  did 
the  weaknesses  of  the  old.  Nowhere  was  the  opposition 
stronger  than  in  New  York.  Hamilton  worked  night  and  day 
to  win  over  this  opposition.  He  made  speeches  and  wrote 
letters  to  the  papers  explaining  the  different  features  of  the 
Constitution.  These  letters,  together  with  a  few  written  by 
Madison  and  John  Jay,  are  called  the  "Federalist"  papers 
and  are  among  the  finest  essays  on  the  science  of  government 
ever  written.  At  last  the  people  were  convinced,  largely 
through  Hamilton's  able  efforts,  and  New  York  became  a 
member  of  the  Union. 

So  the  United  States  was  formed,  and  the  first  President 
chosen  was  George  Washington  —  the  man  whom  the  whole 
nation  loved  and  honored.  The  capital  of  the  new  nation 
was  located  temporarily  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  here 
for  the  first  time  the  new  Congress  met.  Washington  had 
already  been  notified  by  special  messengers  of  his  election 
and  had  started  from  Mount  Vernon.  His  journey  to  New 
York  was  marked  by  many  expressions  of  respect.  In  Phila- 
delphia the  governor  and  state  officials  met  him  at  the  state 
line  and  escorted  him  into  the  city;  at  Trenton,  girls  strewed 
flowers  in  the  path  before  him;  and  at  Elizabethtown,  where 


136 


ALEXANDER   HAMILTON 


he  embarked,  thirteen  master  pilots,  dressed  to  represent  the 
states,  rowed  him  across  to  New  York.  The  30th  of  April, 
1789,  was  the  greatest  day  the  old  city  had  yet  known.  The 
buildings  were  decorated  in  honor  of  the  coming  of  the 
nation's  hero;  the  streets  were  filled  with   people  in   holi- 


Washington  taking  the  Oath  of  Office  as  President 

day  attire.  In  the  forenoon,  services  were  held  in  all  the 
churches,  and  prayers  were  offered  for  the  success  of  the  new 
government.  At  noon,  on  the  steps  of  Federal  Hall,  at  the 
corner  of  Wall  and  Nassau  Streets,  in  the  presence  of  Con- 
gress and  a  vast  crowd  of  citizens,  Washington  took  an  oath 
to  "faithfully  execute  the  office  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States"  and  to  defend  the  Constitution. 


SECRETARY  OF  THE  TREASURY  137 

So  amid  the  cheers  and  the  prayers  of  the  people  the  new 
government  started.  The  most  necessary  thing  to  do  now 
was  to  establish  its  good  name  and  credit,  at  home  and 
abroad.  To  accomplish  this,  Washington  chose  Alexander 
Hamilton  as  his  first  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Hamilton 
had  no  easy  task  before  him.  The  country  was  heavily  in 
debt,  and  there  was  no  money  in  the  Treasury.  During  the 
war,  we  had  borrowed  large  sums  of  gold  from  France  and 
Holland.  Many  of  the  Revolutionary  soldiers  were  still 
unpaid,  and  we  owed,  also,  for  supplies  furnished  the  army. 
These  were  honest  debts,  and  must  be  paid  if  the  new  govern- 
ment expected  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  world. 

Hamilton  began  his  duties  with  the  same  energy  and  the 
same  keen  intelligence  that  he  had  always  shown  in  public 
affairs.  He  believed  that  the  foreign  and  domestic  debt 
should  be  paid  in  full,  and  that  the  money  which  the  states 
had  advanced  during  the  Revolution  should  be  returned  to 
them.  In  order  to  do  this,  he  succeeded  in  having  Congress 
place  a  tariff  on  goods  imported  into  the  United  States,  and  a 
tax  on  alcoholic  liquors.  These  laws  produced  enough  rev- 
enue to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  government  and  to  pay  in 
time  our  national  debt. 

He  also  established  a  banking  system  closely  associated 
with  the  government.  Now  that  the  power  to  coin  money 
had  been  taken  from  the  states  and  given  to  the  federal 
government,  Congress,  at  Jefferson's  suggestion,  created  a 
decimal  system  of  currency,  and  Hamilton  established  a 
United  States  Mint  where  gold  and  silver  and  copper  bullion 
could  be  coined  into  money. 

The  great  orator,  Daniel  Webster,  eloquently  said  of  Ham- 
ilton's great  public  service  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  that 
"  He  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources,  and  abundant 


138 


ALEXANDER   HAMILTON 


streams  of  revenue  burst  forth.    He  touched  the  dead  corpse 
of  public  credit,  and  it  sprang  upon  its  feet." 

In  1795,  Hamilton  retired  from  office  and  resumed  the 
practice  of  law  in  the  city  of  New  York.  He  became  the 
foremost  lawyer  in  the  city,  and  was  the  leading  man  of  the 
Federalist  party  in  the  state,  if  not  in  the  nation.  His  activ- 
ity in  his  profession  and  in  politics  brought  him  into  conflict 


Hamilton  mortally  wounded  by  Burr 


with  the  leaders  of  the  opposite  political  party,  the  Repub- 
licans. One  of  the  men  whose  enmity  he  aroused  was  Aaron 
Burr.  Burr  was  prominent  in  public  life,  and  held  the  office 
of  Vice  President  in  Jefferson's  administration.  He  was  an 
able  man,  but  without  a  high  sense  of  honor,  so  that  people 
began  to  distrust  him.  In  1804,  he  was  a  candidate  for  the 
governorship  of  New  York.  Hamilton  believed  him  to  be 
unworthy  of  that  high  office,  and  worked  against  him  so 
effectually  that  he  was  defeated.  Smarting  under  this  defeat, 
he   determined   to   have   revenge   upon   Hamilton,  who  he 


DUEL    WITH    BURR  139 

thought  was  responsible  for  it.  So  he  challenged  Hamilton 
to  a  duel.  The  custom  of  dueling  still  existed  to  some  extent, 
and  Hamilton  accepted,  although  he  did  not  feel  that  such  a 
method  of  settling  quarrels  was  right.  Hamilton  could  have 
refused  to  enter  into  this  duel  with  Burr,  but  a  false  sense  of 
honor  and  a  fear  that  he  would  be  regarded  as  a  coward  led 
him  to  accept  the  challenge. 

They  met  at  Weehawken,  just  across' the  river  from  New 
York,  on  the  morning  of  July  n,  1804.  Hamilton  did  not 
fire  at  his  rival,  but  was  mortally  wounded  at  Burr's  first  shot. 
He  died  the  next  day,  and  a  whole  nation  mourned  the  loss 
of  its  most  brilliant  statesman.  Burr  fled  from  the  country, 
and  a  short  time  later  was  concerned  in  a  treasonable  plot 
against  the  United  States.  He  was  tried,  acquitted,  and  lived 
to  an  old  age,  but  he  had  forever  lost  the  respect  and  con- 
fidence of  his  countrymen. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Hamilton's  early  life  in  the  West  Indies.  School 
and  college  days  in  New  York.  Becomes  interested  in  the  American 
cause.  Services  in  the  army.  Hamilton  as  a  statesman  and  financier. 
Weaknesses  of  the  confederation.  His  share  in  the  adoption  of  a  Con- 
stitution. His  work  in  establishing  the  credit  of  the  new  nation.  The 
duel  between  Hamilton  and  Burr. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  brief  sketch  of  the  early  life  of  Ham- 
ilton. II.  Describe  the  meeting  in  the  "Fields."  III.  What  were 
Hamilton's  most  important  services  during  the  Revolution?  IV.  What 
were  the  weaknesses  of  the  government  under  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  how  were  they  remedied?  V.  Who  were  the  authors  of  the 
Federalist  papers?  VI.  Tell  the  story  of  Washington's  election  and 
inauguration.  VII.  Are  credit  and  a  reputation  for  honesty  any  less  nec- 
essary to  a  nation  than  to  a  business  man?  VIII.  What  was  Hamil- 
ton's policy?  IX.  What  were  the  traits  of  Hamilton's  character  you 
most  admire?  X.  Was  Hamilton  or  Jefferson  the  greater  statesman? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


140 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Blaisdell  and  Ball,  "Hero  Stories  from  American  His- 
tory," pp.  138-155- 

Biography.  —  Brooks,  "Century  Book  of  Famous  Americans," 
pp.  49-63;  Burton,  "Four  American  Patriots,"  pp.  71-130;  Sparks, 
"The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  pp.  151- 180. 

Fiction.  —  Atherton,  "The  Conqueror";  Ogden,  "Loyal  Little  Red 
Coat." 


Hamilton's  Tomb,  New  York  City 


DANIEL  BOONE  AND  WESTERN 
SETTLEMENTS 

The  Allegheny  Mountains  were  a  barrier  to  settlements 
during  the  colonial  days,  so  we  find  the  Europeans  scattered 
along  the  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida.  But  into  the  moun- 
tain regions  of  western  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  a  hardy 
Scotch-Irish  people  had  crept,  and  by  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  these  people  had  become  interested  in  the 
lands  to  the  west.  Occasionally,  hunters  and  trappers  told 
of  the  rich  country,  and  some  daring  spirit  started  out  to 
explore  it. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  pioneer  men  of  the 
west  was  Daniel  Boone.  He  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1734,  but  while  he  was  still  a  boy  his  parents  moved  to  the 
headwaters  of  the  Yadkin  River  in  North  Carolina.  In  both 
states  his  home  was  in  the  frontier  settlements  and  he  had 
little  opportunity  for  schooling.  The  life  was  so  hard  that 
boys  had  to  go  to  work  early,  and  few  of  them  had  time  or 
opportunity  to  learn  more  than  to  read  and  write.  When 
they  grew  older  they  learned  the  elements  of  surveying,  for 
nearly  every  man  at  some  time  was  called  upon  t'  use  this 
knowledge. 

Daniel  Boone  was  an  active  boy  and  loved  the  woods.  He 
soon  came  to  know  the  haunts  of  the  best  game,  and  was  a  sure 
marksman.  The  bold,  wild  freedom  of  life  in  the  wilderness 
tended  to  make  these  men  very  independent.  As  a  settle- 
ment grew  in  size,  the  people  were  eager  to  push  back  into 

the  new  and  unsettled  regions. 

141 


142 


DANIEL   BOONE 


Boone  married  at  twenty,  and,  going  some  distance  from 
his  father's  home,  built  his  log  house  and  cleared  the  land. 
He  soon  realized  that  the  quiet  life  of  a  farmer  did  not 
satisfy  him.     He  loved  hunting  and  trapping  much  better. 

Every  trip  into  the 
mountains  made  him 
wish  to  keep  on  going 
instead  of  returning 
home.  Some  of  these 
were  long  trips,  for  in 
the  valley  of  Boone's 
creek  (a  branch  of 
the  Watauga  River  in 
eastern  Tennessee)  a 
birch  tree  is  still 
standing  that  bears 
the  inscription:  UD. 
Boone  cilled  a  bar  in 
this  tree  in  the  year 
1760."  This  is  prob- 
ably a  fair  example  of 
his  spelling. 

In  May,  1769,  with 
four  other  men, 
Boone  started  on  his 
first  exploring  trip  to 
Kentucky.  This  was  known  by  the  Indians  as  "  No-Man's 
Land,"  for  no  one  tribe  of  Indians  claimed  it,  but  it  was 
the  hunting  range  of  several  bands  of  both  northern  and 
southern  tribes. 

For  five  weeks  these  men  toiled  through  the  mountains. 
They  had  to  blaze  a  trail,  cut  down  trees  and  brush,  and  ford 


Daniel  Boone,  the  Hunter 


WESTERN    SETTLEMENTS  1 43 

streams,  besides  shooting  game  necessary  for  food.  Early 
in  June  they  reached  the  last  slope  on  the  Kentucky  side  of 
the  mountains,  and  found  a  beautiful  and  fertile  land  full  of 
game.  The  buffalo,  bison,  deer,  bear,  and  elk,  besides  many 
smaller  animals,  were  abundant.  They  selected  a  good  place 
and  built  a  camp;  then  they  made  exploring  trips  round 
about. 

In  December,  while  Boone  and  another  man  were  on  one 
of  these  expeditions,  they  were  captured  by  the  Indians.  For 
a  week  they  were  carefully  guarded,  but  one  night  after  a 
great  feast,  Boone  watched  his  chance,  and,  when  the  Indians 
were  asleep,  he  and  his  friend  escaped.  When  they  reached 
their  camp  their  three  friends  were  not  there,  and  they  never 
knew  what  became  of  them. 

About  this  time,  Daniel  Boone's  brother  came  from  home. 
He  was  not  a  very  good  hunter,  so  after  a  few  weeks  he  returned 
to  the  settlements  for  food  supplies  and  ammunition.  During 
his  three  months'  absence,  Daniel  Boone  remained  at  the 
camp  all  alone,  for  his  friend  Stewart  had  already  been  killed. 

The  brother  returned  early  in  the  summer  with  several 
hunters.  Boone  says  that  they  brought  with  them  a  copy  of 
"  Gulliver's  Travels,"  and  that  they  greatly  enjoyed  reading 
aloud  to  each  other  after  their  day's  tramping  was  over. 
There  are  many  streams  and  places  in  Kentucky  to-day  which 
were  named  by  these  men  from  characters  in  this  book. 
After  two  years  Boone  knew  the  land  well  enough'  to  bring 
settlers  out,  so  in  the  spring  of  1771  he  returned  to  his  home 
in  North  Carolina. 

He  is  described  as  being  a  tall,  slender,  muscular  man, 
with  very  keen  eyes.  He  had  a  remarkable  self-control  and 
patience,  and  he  apparently  knew  neither  fear  nor  weariness. 
He  understood  men,  and  they  naturally  believed  in  him. 


144 


DANIEL   BOONE 


Hence  he  was  a  leader  among  men,  for  they  knew  his  judg- 
ment was  sound  and  his  dealings  fair. 

In  1773  he  sold  his  farm  in  North  Carolina  and  took  his 
wife  and  children  over  the  mountains  into  Kentucky.  With 
them  went  five  other  families  and  forty  men.  The  men 
walked,  some  going  ahead  to  clear  the  way,  others  remaining 


Early  Western  Settlements 


behind  with  rifles  loaded  for  protection.  The  women  and 
small  children  rode  on  horseback,  while  the  larger  children 
drove  the  cows.  They  carried  little  with  them  save  food, 
cooking  utensils,  necessary  clothing,  and  blankets.  The  road 
they  cut  led  through  the  Cumberland  Gap,  a  narrow  break 
in  the  Allegheny  Mountains. 


WESTERN   SETTLEMENTS  1 45 

When  they  finally  reached  Kentucky,  they  were  obliged 
not  only  to  build  their  houses,  but  to  make  their  furniture 
and  provide  for  defense  against  Indian  attacks.  They  built 
log  cabins  with  huge  outside  chimneys,  often  made  of  the 
cobblestones  picked  up  in  the  fields.  They  had  no  stoves, 
but  the  large  fireplaces  furnished  warmth  as  well  as  a  place 
for  cooking.  Chairs  and  tables  were  made  from  slabs  split 
from  logs.  They  had  no  iron  nails  nor  hinges,  but  wooden 
pegs  and  strips  of  leather  were  good  substitutes. 

Boone  built  on  the  Kentucky  River,  within  about  thirty 
miles  of  the  present  site  of  Lexington,  a  remarkable  fort 
called  Boonesborough  (or  Boonesboro).  This  was  an  in- 
closure  250  feet  long  and  125  feet  wide.  At  each  corner 
was  a  two-story  blockhouse,  and  along  the  sides  were  several 
log  cabins.  The  gaps  between  the  blockhouses  and  cabins 
were  filled  with  heavy  timbers  thrust  into  the  ground  close 
together  and  bound  tightly  toward  the  top,  thus  completing 
the  inclosure.  There  were  no  openings  in  the  outside  walls 
on  the  ground  floor  of  the  cabins  and  blockhouses,  but  above 
were  loop-holes  for  rifles  to  stick  through.  The  trees  were 
cut  down  for  a  space  of  forty  or  fifty  feet  around  the  in- 
closure. In  case  of  a  threatened  attack  on  their  settlement, 
the  people  drove  their  cows  and  horses  within  the  walled  in- 
closure, and  took  shelter  in  the  cabins. 

Life  in  the  wilderness  was  interesting  but  very  serious. 
The  Indians  did  not  object  to  traders  and  casual  visitors,  but 
they  disliked  to  have  the  white  people  settle  on  their  hunting 
grounds.  So  they  used  all  sorts  of  methods  to  break  up  the 
settlements.  They  burned  or  destroyed  the  crops,  and  killed 
the  cows  and  horses.  They  would  also  imitate  the  call  of 
animals,  like  the  hooting  of  an  owl  or  the  gobble  of  the  wild 
turkey,  in  order  to  lure  the  hunter  farther  into  the  woods 


146 


DANIEL  BOONE 


and  then  shoot  him.     The  settlers  learned  to  be  always  on 
their  guard. 

One  day  Boone's  daughter  and  two  other  girls  were  cap- 
tured by  the  Indians  and  carried  off.  Of  course  the  girls  were 
badly  frightened,  but  they  were  careful  to  break  twigs  on 
the  trees  and  bushes  as  they  went  along.  The  Indians 
noticed  this  and  forbade  their  doing  it  any  more.  Then  the 
girls  slyly  tore  off  little  pieces  of  their  dresses  and  dropped 
them  along  the  way.  This  was  not  noticed  by  the  Indians 
but  served  to  guide  Daniel  Boone  and  seven  other  men  a  few 


The  Indians  initiating  Boone  into  their  Tribe 

hours  later  when  they  started  out  to  find  the  girls.  The 
rescuing  party  did  not  overtake  them  till  the  second  morn- 
ing, while  the  Indians  and  their  captives  were  having  break- 
fast. As  soon  as  the  Indians  saw  the  white  men  they  fled, 
leaving  the  girls  unharmed. 


WESTERN    SETTLEMENTS  147 

During  the  Revolutionary  War  the  Indians  in  that  part  of 
the  country  aided  the  English.  Of  course  Boone  and  the 
other  settlers  were  Patriots.  One  day  in  1778  Boone  and 
twenty-nine  other  men  were  captured  and  taken  to  the  English 
headquarters  at  Detroit.  The  English  offered  $500  for  Boone, 
but  the  Indians  had  taken  such  a  fancy  to  him  that  they 
refused  the  offer  and  carried  him  back  to  southern  Illinois. 
They  adopted  him  into  their  tribe,  and  to  make  him  look  like 
an  Indian  they  pulled  out  his  long  hair,  leaving  a  little  tuft  on 
top,  which  they  decorated  with  feathers.  They  made  him  bathe 
in  a  stream  to  wash  out  the  white  blood,  and  then  they  painted 
him  with  fancy  colors  to  suit  their  tribe.  Boone  was  careful 
to  do  nothing  to  anger  them.  Although  he  submitted  to 
this  performance  with  good  nature,  he  was  constantly  on  the 
alert  to  find  a  chance  to  escape. 

The  Indians  did  not  know  that  he  understood  their  lan- 
guage, so  they  talked  over  their  plans  in  his  presence.  After 
he  had  been  with  them  two  months,  he  heard  them  planning 
to  attack  Boonesborough.  He  then  determined  to  escape  to 
protect  it  and  save  his  settlement  and  family.  A  morning 
or  so  later,  just  before  sunrise,  he  slipped  away.  He  fled 
straight  through  the  woods  toward  home,  and  in  four  days  he 
had  traveled  160  miles.  He  said  he  took  but  one  meal  on 
the  way.  He  immediately  made  the  fort  ready  for  attack, 
but  the  Indians  did  not  come  until  some  weeks  later.  Then 
three  or  four  hundred  besieged  the  fort  for  nine  days,  but 
finally  gave  it  up  and  left.  This  was  the  last  serious  attack 
on  the  settlement. 

Many  old  friends  and  neighbors  of  the  pioneers  from 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina  came  and  made  their  homes  in 
Kentucky.  Their  sons  and  daughters  married,  and  soon 
the  central  part  of  the  state  was  well  filled  with  prosper- 


148 


DANIEL   BOONE 


ous  farmers.  They  organized  and  developed  a  good  local 
government,  and  in  1792  Kentucky  was  admitted  as  a 
state. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Boyhood.  Hard  life  on  the  frontier.  First  trip 
of  two  years  to  Kentucky.  Settlement  made.  Boonesborough.  Re- 
lations with  the  Indians. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Imagine  you  are  Boone's  daughter.  Write 
your  experiences  as  a  captive.  II.  Take  the  side  of  the  Indian  and 
write  your  objections  to  the  coming  of  the  white  men.  III.  Describe 
the  fort  at  Boonesborough. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  North  Carolina,  Kentucky,  Cumberland  Gap, 
Boonesborough  (Boonesboro),  the  Kentucky  River,  Lexington. 

Collateral  Reading 

Biography. — Thwaites,  "Daniel  Boone";  Lindslay,  "Daniel 
Boone";  Perry  and  Beebe,  "Four  American  Pioneers,"  pp.  11-68; 
Hart  and  Hill,  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution,"  pp.  102-116; 
McMurray,  "  Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

Fiction.  —  Bogart,  "A  Border  Boy." 


A  Blockhouse 


THE  WAR  OF  1812 

For  many  years  after  the  close  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, England  and  France  were  at  war.  The  United  States 
remained  neutral,  and  at  first  enjoyed  a  profitable  trade  with 
both  countries.  After  a  while,  England  declared  a  blockade 
of  French  ports  and  France  blockaded  English  ports.  But 
the  merchants  of  the  United  States  claimed  that,  as  neutrals, 
they  had  a  right  to  trade  with  both  countries.  In  one  year 
England  seized  200  American  ships  on  their  way  to  French 
ports,  and  France  seized  as  many  bound  for  England.  The 
people  of  the  United  States  resented  the  conduct  of  England 
more  than  that  of  France  because  there  were  other  reasons 
for  bitterness. 

Many  English  sailors,  tired  of  war,  deserted  from  the 
navy  and  found  work  on  American  merchant  vessels.  The 
English,  claiming  the  right  to  look  for  deserters,  often  stopped 
and  searched  American  ships.  Many  English  sailors  were 
found  and  compelled  to  return  to  service.  More  often,  how- 
ever, the  searching  officers  could  not  tell  an  Englishman 
from  an  American,  and  took  some  born  in  America  and  others 
who  had  become  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
In  one  year  1000  American  sailors  were  in  this  way  forced 
into  the  English  navy.  This  became  intolerable.  One  Amer- 
ican ship  not  only  refused  to  allow  a  search  but  fought  the 
English  ship  that  demanded  the  right. 

The  English  occupied  until  1796  the  forts  on  the  Amer- 
ican side  of  the  Great  Lakes  which  they  had  agreed  to  aban- 

MAK.   &  DEF. IO  149 


IS© 


WAR    OF    l8l2 


don  at  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  The  settlers  on 
the  frontier  also  accused  the  English  of  stirring  'up  the  In- 
dians against  them.  These  troubles,  and  the  impressment 
of  sailors,  continued  for  many  years.  Finally,  in  1812,  the 
United  States,  seeing  that  such  difficulties  and  insults  could 


Impressment  of  American  Sailors  by  the  English 


be  settled  in  no  other  way,  declared  war  against  England. 
This  war  was  fought  along  the  Canadian  border,  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  on  the  high  seas. 

The  first  plan  outlined  by  the  government  was  an  invasion 
of  Canada  from  several  points.  Hull  with  an  army  was  to 
cross  at  Detroit  and  march  east.  Van  Rensselaer  was  to 
cross  the  Niagara  River  and  with  Hull  move  toward  Mon- 
treal.    Dearborn  was  to  enter  Canada  through  the  Cham- 


WAR    OF    l8l2 


151 


plain  valley,  and  the  three  com- 
bined armies  would  then  take 
Montreal  and  Quebec. 

This  plan  failed.  Hull  sur- 
rendered at  Detroit.  Van  Rens- 
selaer was  defeated  while  at- 
tacking Queenstown.  Dearborn  did  not  even  get  across  the 
boundary  of  Canada.  But  General  William  Henry  Harri- 
son, Commander  of  the  Army  of  the  West,  saved  the  Ohio 
country  by  many  victories  over  Canadians  and  Indians. 

The  war,  however,  was  principally  a  naval  war.  When  it 
began,  England  had  available  1336  warships  —  300  of  the 
first  class.  The  United  States  had  thirteen  warships,  with 
only  three  of  the  first  class.  The  English  soldiers  and  marines 
were  veterans,  the  Americans  were  volunteers.  England  was 
called  "The  Queen  of  the  Northern  Seas,"  because  for  two 
hundred  years  she  had  stood  without  an  equal. 


152  oliver  hazard  perry 

Naval  Heroes  of  the  War  of  181 2  —  Oliver  Hazard 
Perry  and  Battle  of  Lake  Erie 

An  English  fleet  was  scattered  along  the  Great  Lakes  to 
prevent  the  invasion  of  Canada.  The  Americans  saw  the 
need  of  getting  boats  on  these  lakes  to  break  the  power  of  the 
English.  Early  in  1813,  the  government  ordered  Oliver 
Hazard  Perry  to  go  to  Lake  Erie,  build  a  fleet,  and  drive  out 
the  English.  It  looked  like  a 'big  order  for  a  young  man  of 
twenty-seven,  but  he  did  it. 

Oliver  Hazard  Perry  was  born  in  South  Kingston,  R.  I., 
August  23,  1785.  His  father  was  a  naval  officer  of  some 
prominence,  and  his  mother  was  a  woman  of  great  ability  and 
excellent  character.  It  is  said  that  she  fitted  her  son  to  com- 
mand others  by  teaching  him  to  obey.  She  directed  the 
boy's  reading  with  great  care.  He  went  to  the  best  private 
schools,  where  he  excelled  in  mathematics  and  history.  Later 
he  was  a  private  pupil  of  the  famous  Frenchman,  Count 
Rochambeau. 

He  grew  up  with  little  love  for  the  English.  His  father 
had  served  in  the  Revolution,  had  been  taken  prisoner,  and 
had  spent  three  months  on  the  old  Jersey  prison  ship.  Young 
Oliver  listened  with  keen  interest  to  his  father's  experiences, 
and  with  flashing  eye  and  clenched  fist  declared  that  he 
would  some  time  punish  the  English. 

At  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  entered  the  navy  as  a  midship- 
man, and  two  years  later  served  in  the  war  against  the  pirates 
of  the  Barbary  States.  Several  times  he  was  on  board  ships 
that  were  stopped  and  searched.  This  not  only  made  him 
wish  to  fight  but  made  him  familiar  with  methods  of  English 
warfare. 

In  181 1,  Perry  was  put  in  command  of  the  Newport  flotilla 


WAR    OF    l8l2  153 

of  gunboats  waiting  for  war.  For  years  he  had  given  careful 
study  to  the  best  authorities  on  gunnery  and  naval  tactics. 
While  waiting  for  orders,  he  trained  his  crews,  giving  per- 
sonal attention  to  all  details.  He  knew  all  about  the  con- 
struction of  ships  as  well  as  the  arms  and  ammunition  used 
on  board.  He  often  divided  his  fleet  into  squadrons  and 
practiced  sham  battles.  In  these  he  applied  and  tested  his 
book  knowledge  and  worked  out  experiments  for  new  methods 
of  attack  and  defense. 

When  it  was  decided  to  build  a  fleet  on  Lake  Erie  he 
offered  his  services.  He  received  his  orders  on  February  17, 
1 813,  and  within  twenty-four  hours  he  had  sent  off  fifty  men. 
A  few  days  later  he  started  with  his  young  brother  Alexander 
and  a  hundred  men.  They  had  to  drive  in  sleighs  from 
Rhode  Island  to  Lake  Erie,  where  they  arrived  March  27. 
Ship  carpenters  were  sent  from  Philadelphia,  and  a  month 
passed  before  they  arrived  at  the  lake.  Meanwhile  Perry 
and  his  men  had  been  cutting  down  trees  and  getting  the 
timbers  ready.  All  of  this  work  of  shipbuilding  was  very 
difficult  because  in  that  wilderness  they  had  so  few  conven- 
iences. They  often  had  to  make  their  own  tools  or  wait 
weeks  to  send  east  for  them. 

By  early  summer  nine  vessels  were  built,  only  two  of 
which  could  be  called  men-of-war.  But  all  of  them  could 
carry  a  few  guns.  As  war  ships  in  those  days  were  sailing 
vessels,  the  method  of  attack  was  to  destroy  the  masts  and 
rigging  of  the  enemy's  fleet.  This  was  most  easily  done  by 
firing  shot,  made  of  scraps  of  iron  sewed  up  in  leather  bags. 
Bits  of  bolts,  bars,  nails,  and,  in  fact,  any  pieces  of  old  iron 
were  collected  and  made  up  into  these  peculiar  cartridges. 

The  English  fleet  consisted  of  six  boats  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Barclay,  who  had  served  with  Nelson  at 


154  OLIVER   HAZARD   PERRY 

Trafalgar.  The  Americans  had  nine  boats,  but  their  com- 
mander was  little  more  than  a  boy.  Although  we  must 
acknowledge  that  the  American  force  was  stronger,  it  had 
greater  obstacles  to  overcome. 

Perry  collected  his  boats  at  Put-in-Bay,  and  in  the  evening 
of  September  9  he  called  his  officers  together  and  gave  them 
written  orders.  He  showed  them  his  battle  flag,  a  blue  square 
with  "Don't  Give  up  the  Ship"  1  in  white  letters,  and  said 
to  them,  "  When  this  flag  shall  be  hoisted  at  the  main  yard 
of  the  Lawrence,  it  shall  be  your  signal  for  going  into  action." 

At  daylight  the  next  morning,  the  English  squadron  was 
sighted.  Perry  started  toward  them,  his  flagship,  the  Law- 
rence, in  the  lead.  The  English  boats  lined  up,  with  the 
Detroit  a  little  ahead.  The  battle  began  about  noon.  For 
two  hours  it  was  principally  a  duel  between  the  Lawrence 
and  the  Detroit.  By  two  o'clock  the  rigging  of  the  Lawrence 
was  all  shot  away,  her  sails  were  cut  to  shreds,  her  spars 
were  splintered  and  guns  dismounted.  Only  one  mast 
remained,  and  from  it  streamed  the  national  flag  and  the  blue 
banner.  Most  men  would  have  given  up  and  struck  their 
flag,  but  not  so  with  Perry. 

His  next  best  ship,  the  Niagara,  was  still  unhurt.  He  took 
his  flags,  lowered  a  boat,  and,  with  his  brother  and  a  few 
sailors,  made  for  her.  Captain  Barclay,  noting  this,  turned 
big  and  little  guns  on  the  small  boat  to  prevent  Perry  from 
reaching  the  Niagara.  Bullets  whizzed  about  them;  grape- 
shot  struck  the  water,  spattering  the  men  until  they  were 
drenched;  oars  were  shivered  with  cannonballs;  but  not  a 
man  was  hurt.    In  fifteen  minutes  Perry  was  on  the  Niagara. 

1  The  dying  words  of  Captain  Lawrence  in  the  battle  between  the  Chesa- 
peake and  the  Shannon.  This  flag  is  to-day  in  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annap- 
olis. 


WAR    OF    l8l2 


155 


Perry  leaving  his  Flagship  at  the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie 


He  hoisted  his  flags  and  dashed  through  the  enemy's  line, 
and  at  three  o'clock  Captain  Barclay  struck  his  colors.  Four 
English  boats  surrendered;  two  tried  to  escape,  but  were 
chased  and  brought  back.  The  first  and  the  second  in  com- 
mand on  the  English  vessels  were  killed  or  wounded,  a  proof 
of  their  desperate  fighting. 

This  was  the  first  time  in  England's  history  that  she  lost 
an  entire  squadron  in  a  naval  battle.  This  victory  on  Lake 
Erie  gave  the  Americans  command  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
But  quite  as  important  was  the  confidence  in  our  navy, 
inspired  by  this  success.  Before  the  smoke  had  cleared 
away  Perry  wrote  his  famous  message  to  General  Harrison, 
who  was  in  command  of  the  army  in  Ohio  near  the  lake  — 
"We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours:  two  ships,  two 
brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop. 

"  Yours  with  great  respect  and  esteem, 

"Oliver  Hazard  Perry." 


156  THOMAS   MACDONOUGH 

In  recognition  of  his  work  Congress  made  him  captain 
and  presented  him  with  a  medal  struck  in  honor  of  this 
victory.  Captain  Perry  served  on  the  lakes  until  the  next 
spring,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  defense  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.  In  1 81 5  he  commanded  one  of  the  ships  of  Decatur's 
squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

In  June,  1819,  he  was  sent  against  the  West  Indian  priva- 
teers. While  on  this  voyage  he  was  stricken  with  yellow 
fever,  and  died  on  his  thirty-fourth  birthday,  August  23, 1819. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Causes  of  the  War  of  1812:  (a)  England  inter- 
fering with  trade;  (b)  impressing  American  seamen.  War  declared. 
Comparative  strength  of  two  nations.  Fleet  on  the  lakes.  Pern-  built 
an  American  fleet.  Battle  of  Lake  Erie.  Gained  control  of  the  lakes 
by  capturing  the  English  fleet. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  paragraph  to  show  the  value  to  the 
Americans  of  controlling  the  lakes.  II.  Imagine  you  were  the  young 
brother,  Alexander.    Give  your  experiences  during  the  battle. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Lake  Erie  and  Put-In-Bay. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Beebe,  "Four  American  Naval  Heroes,"  pp.  75-130; 
Roosevelt,  "Naval  War  of  1812,"  pp.  375-398. 

Poetry.  —  Key,  "Star  Spangled  Banner";  Holmes,  "Old  Ironsides"; 
Stevenson,  "  Poems  of  American  History." 

Fiction.  —  Barnes,  "The  Hero  of  Lake  Erie";  Otis,  "With  Perry 
on  Lake  Erie." 

Macdonough  and  the  Battle  of  Lake  Champlain 

Another  important  battle  on  the  Canadian  frontier  was 
fought  on  Lake  Champlain  in  September,  18 14.  The  hero 
of  this  battle  was  a  young  man  of  twenty-eight,  Macdonough 
by  name.  The  Champlain  valley  had  been  the  scene  of 
many  military   engagements   in  the   earlier  wars.     In  the 


WAR   OF    l8l2 


*57 


French  and  Indian  War  both  armies  moved  up  and  down  that 
valley.  In  the  Revolution,  Burgoyne  invaded  the  country 
by  that  route.  Now,  in  the  summer  of  18 14,  an  English 
army  11,000  strong  under  General  Provost  marched  into  the 
state  along  the  west  side  of  Lake  Champlain.  He  was 
accompanied  by  an  English  fleet  which  had  entered  the 
lake  by  the  Sorel  or  Richelieu  River.  The  United  States 
determined  to  destroy  this  fleet,  knowing  that  Provost 
would  not  dare  to  advance  far  without  its  aid. 

Thomas  Macdonough,  the  hero  of  Champlain,  was  born 
in  New  Castle,  Delaware,  Decem- 
ber 23,  1783.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  a  midshipman  at  sixteen  and  soon 
served  with  the  Mediterranean  fleet 
in  the  war  with  Tripoli.  He  was 
on  board  the  Philadelphia  when  it 
was  captured,  but  succeeded  in  es- 
caping. He  then  served  on  the  En- 
terprise under  the  great  Commodore 
Decatur. 

Young  Macdonough  was  bright 
and  quick-witted,  picking  up  valu- 
able knowledge  with  every  experi- 
ence. His  good  nature,  his  willingness  to  work,  and  his 
promptness  to  obey  made  him  a  great  favorite  with  both  of- 
ficers and  men.  He  was  enthusiastic  but  never  rash.  He 
habitually  made  careful  preparations  before  undertaking  any 
piece  of  work.  It  was  such  characteristics  that  made  him 
the  choice  for  the  important  command  on  Lake  Champlain. 

The  English  entered  New  York  state  in  August.  An 
American  army  of  2000  held  Plattsburg,  on  a  bay  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Saranac  River.     Macdonough  got  together  a 


Thcmas  Macdonough 


158  THOMAS"  MACDONOUGH 

small  squadron  and  took  up  a  position  just  at  the  entrance 
to  the  bay.  The  English  fleet  was  stronger  than  the  Ameri- 
can, but  was  less  fortunate  in  position  during  the  battle,  be- 
cause of  the  prevailing  winds  on  the  lake. 

At  sunrise  on  September  11,  the  enemy  came  in  sight.  Mac- 
donough  at  once  called  his  officers  about  him,  and,  kneeling 
upon  the  quarter-deck,  they  prayed  for  wisdom  and  guidance 
in  the  work  before  them.  Every  man  then  went  to  his 
place  and  awaited  orders.  The  English  boats  advanced  fear- 
lessly, while  the  Americans  quietly  watched  them  from  their 
advantageous  position  at  anchor.  Suddenly,  when  the  two 
fleets  were  about  four  hundred  yards  apart,  and  but  a  shot 
or  two  had  been  exchanged,  a  pet  gamecock  on  Macdonough's 
flagship  flew  upon  a  cannon,  clapped  his  wings  and  crowed 
lustily.  The  Americans  cheered  and  went  into  the  fight  re- 
garding this  as  a  favorable  omen. 

The  Saratoga  and  the  English  boat,  Confiance,  took  the 
lead,  but  shortly  every  boat  in  each  fleet  was  firing  away  the 
best  it  could.  The  Saratoga  was  so  anchored  that  she  could 
swing  around,  thus  increasing  the  effectiveness  of  her  guns. 
The  English  boats  could  not  do  this,  but  the  Confiance  had  a 
furnace  for  heating  red  hot  the  shot  to  be  fired.  The  injury 
from  this  hot  shot  was  much  lessened  because  the  guns  from 
which  it  was  fired  became  loosened  and  their  muzzles  were 
so  elevated  that  they  often  shot  over  the  American  boats, 
and  the  balls  dropped  hissing  into  the  water. 

The  captain  of  the  Confiance  was  killed  early  in  the  engage- 
ment. Macdonough  worked  like  a  common  sailor,  firing 
a  big  gun,  besides  keeping  perfect  command  of  his  fleet  and 
noting  every  act  of  the  enemy.  The  battle  lasted  about  two 
hours,  and  four  of  the  English  ships  were  in  almost  a  sinking 
condition  before  the  Confiance  struck  her  flag.     It  was  a 


WAR   OF    l8l2 


159 


most  stubbornly  fought  battle.  The  destruction  on  both 
sides  was  awful.  The  hull  of  the  Confiance  had  105  shot- 
holes,  while  the  Saratoga  was  injured  beyond  repair. 

Finally,  every  English  flag  was  pulled  down,  and  the  Amer- 
icans took  possession  of  the  Confiance.  Then  the  English 
officers  came  to  offer  their  swords  to  Macdonough,   who 


At  Plattsburg,  September  n,  1814 

courteously  replied:  "Gentlemen,  your  gallant  conduct 
makes  you  worthy  to  wear  your  weapons.  Return  them  to 
their  scabbards." 

The  result  of  this  victory  was  immediately  felt.  The  Eng- 
lish army  that  was  moving  on  Plattsburg  turned  about  and 
hastily  retreated  to  Canada.  Thus  the  United  States  was 
saved  from  further  trouble  in  this  section. 

Roosevelt  says  in  his  "War  of  1812":   "  Macdonough  in 


l6o  THOMAS   MACDONOUGH 

this  battle  won  a  higher  fame  than  any  other  commander  in 
the  war,  British  or  American.  He  had  a  decidedly  superior 
force  to  contend  against,  the  officers  and  men  on  both  sides 
being  about  on  a  par  in  every  respect,  and  it  was  solely  owing 
to  his  foresight  and  resource  that  we  won  the  victory." 

This  was  the  last  of  the  great  battles  on  the  Canadian 
frontier.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  the  following 
December.  The  war  had  lasted  two  years.  Besides  these 
battles  on  the  Canadian  border,  the  city  of  Washington 
had  been  burned  by  the  English,  and  many  individual 
vessels  had  successfully  engaged  English  war  ships.  The 
American  frigate  Constitution  won  many  victories  in  these 
naval  duels. 

Throughout  the  war,  the  American  navy  did  splendid  work. 
Although  decidedly  inferior  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  it 
defeated  the  "  Queen  of  the  Northern  Seas."  Roosevelt 
says  this  remarkable  success  was  due  to  the  fact  that  our 
men  were  better  marksman,  that  our  boats  were  more  easily 
maneuvered  and  were  not  disturbed  by  the  rough  waters; 
whether  balancing  on  the  top  of  a  wave  or  plowing  in  a 
trough,  their  shots  took  effect.  And  last  of  all  the  Americans 
were  fighting  for  their  rights;  they  fought  hard  and  they  won. 

This  war  greatly  strengthened  the  spirit  of  union  between 
the  states.  The  victorious  navy  belonged  to  the  nation,  not 
to  any  state  or  section.  Men  who  had  opposed  building  war 
ships  could  not  help  being  proud  of  the  naval  victories. 

It  also  won  for  the  United  States  the  respect  of  other 

nations.     After  that,  vessels  floating  the  American  flag  could 

* 

sail  the  seas  without  interference.  Thus  the  United  States 
is  said  to  have  won  her  commercial  independence. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Macdonough's  boyhood;  service  under  Decatur 
id  Mediterranean.    Champlain  valley  invaded  by  Burgoyne  and  again, 


WAR  OF    lSl2 


161 


in  1814,  by  an  army  and  fleet.  Macdonough  skillfully  defeats  English. 
Much  credit  due  the  navy. 

For  Written  Work.  —  Compare  the  work  of  Perry  with  that  of  Mac- 
donough. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Richelieu  (Sorcl)  River,  Lake  Champlain, 
Plattsburg,  Saranac  River. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Roosevelt,  "Naval  War  of  1812,"  pp.  375-398;  Williams, 
"  Stories  from  Early  New  York  History,"  pp.  259-264. 

Fiction.  —  Otis,  "With  Porter  on  the  Essex";  Seawell,  "Decatur 
and  Somers";  "Midshipman  Paulding." 


Cannon  mounted  for  Navy 


LAFAYETTE  —  A  LOYAL  FRIEND  TO  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

During  the  war  for  American  independence  several  for- 
eigners gave  valuable  aid  to  the  colonies.  Of  these  men 
probably  Lafayette  is  the  most  gratefully  remembered.  This 
may  be  due  to  his  rank  and  extreme  youth  when  he  came  to 
help  us,  and  to  his  delightful  visit  many  years  later. 

Lafayette  was  born  September  6,  1757,  in  the  old  castle  of 
his  family  in  central  France.  He  belonged  to  the  highest  rank 
of  French  nobility.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  left  an  or- 
phan in  full  possession  of  valuable  landed  estates  and  with  the 
title  of  marquis.  While  at  college  in  Paris,  he  was  received 
at  the  court  of  Louis  XV.  and  became  a  great  favorite  with 
the  king.  He  also  served  as  a  page  in  the  royal  household, 
and  through  the  queen's  influence  received  a  military  com- 
mission at  the  age  of  fifteen. 

The  marquis  was  a  tall  boy,  and  more  mature  than  most 
of  his  age.  His  natural  self-reliance  was  also  fostered  by  his 
training  and  experience.  At  sixteen  he  married,  and  was 
stationed  as  captain  of  dragoons  in  the  garrison  at  Metz,  on 
the  German  border. 

At  a  grand  dinner  party  soon  after  the  Declaration  of 

Independence,  Lafayette  first  heard  of  the  struggle  of  the 

American  colonists.     He  at  once  became  interested  in  their 

cause  and  took  opportunity  to  learn  more  about  them.     After 

hearing  of  Washington's  brilliant  victories  at  Trenton  and 

Princeton,  he  decided  to  help  the  Americans  in  person.     He 

162 


REVOLUTIONARY   WAR  1 63 

fitted  out  a  vessel  at  his  own  expense,  and  in  April,  1777,  with 
Baron  De  Kalb  and  eleven  other  officers  sailed  for  America. 

On  his  arrival  he  formally  offered  his  services  to  Congri 
asking  to  serve  as  a  volunteer  and  to  pay  his  own  expenses. 
The  high  rank  of  the  young  man  and  his  generous  offer  made 
him  very  acceptable.     The  next  day  he  was  presented  to 


The  First  Meeting  between  Washington  and  Lafayette 

Washington,  who  was  so  well  pleased  that  he  asked  that  this 
French  marquis,  not  yet  twenty  years  of  age,  be  made  a  major 
general.  From  that  time  the  two  men  were  very  warm 
friends. 

Some  weeks  later,  Lafayette  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Brandywine.  The  following  June  he  proved  most  helpful 
at  the  battle  of  Monmouth.     A  French  alliance  had  been 


164 


LAFAYETTE 


made  in  February,  1778,  but  it  was  not  until  Lafayette's 
visit  to  France  in  1779  that  any  help  was  sent.  He  then  told 
his  people  what  the  colonists  most  needed.  As  a  result, 
France  loaned  money,  and  later  sent  an  army  and  a  fleet  to 
be  subject  to  Washington's  orders  at  all  times. 

In  1780  Lafayette  was  given  command  of  troops  for  the 
defense  of  Virginia,  and  conducted  a  brilliant  campaign 
against  Cornwallis,  who  invaded  that  state  in  the  summer 


k 

■   ''-'!.,.     ; 

[ -T 

0Tj 

<»          *IV 

H 

• 

VJOk 

Surrender  of  Comwallis 

of  1 781.  At  the  siege  of  York  town  his  men  did  splendid 
work,  and  on  the  day  of  the  capture  of  the  town  they 
closely  followed  Hamilton's  men  over  the  defenses. 

This  young  Frenchman  had  been  brought  up  in  luxury. 
He  had  great  wealth,  a  fine  home,  wife  and  children.  He 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  royal  family  and  of  people  of 
noble  rank  and  culture.  He  had  the  best  of  prospects,  but 
he  gave  up  all  at  the  age  of  nineteen  to  help,  without  pay,  an 


VISIT  TO   UNITED    STATES   IN   1 824  165 

unknown  people  struggling  against  a  powerful  government. 
For  five  years  he  shared  the  privations  of  the  American 
army.  He  even  adopted  the  simple  style  of  American  dress, 
laying  aside  the  splendid  French  uniform  that  he  was  entitled 
to  wear.  Such  conduct  merited  the  love  of  Washington  and 
of  the  American  people. 

After  the  war  he  returned  home,  and  was  soon  called 
upon  to  serve  his  own  country  through  many  years  of 
revolution  and  war.  When  peace  finally  came  he  used  his 
splendid  ability  to  secure  to  France  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment. For  forty  years  he  served  France  as  soldier  and 
statesman. 

During  all  these  years  Lafayette  kept  a  warm  interest  in 
the  United  States,  and  often  spoke  of  visiting  this  country. 
In  1824  Congress  requested  President  Monroe  to  invite  him 
as  a  national  guest.  In  July  of  that  year,  with  his  son  George 
Washington  Lafayette  and  other  attendants,  he  sailed  for 
New  York.  On  August  16,  6000  citizens  in  gayly  decked 
boats  met  him  down  the  bay  and  escorted  his  vessel  to  its 
dock,  amid  the  firing  of  salutes  and  the  cheers  of  200,000 
people  awaiting  his  arrival. 

He  visited  each  of  the  twenty-four  states  of  the  Union  and 
everywhere  was  most  enthusiastically  received.  He  went 
first  to  the  city  of  Washington,  where  he  was  received  by  Presi- 
dent Monroe  and  welcomed  as  the  nation's  guest.  He  then 
visited  Mount  Vernon,  where  forty  years  before  he  had  enjoyed 
the  hospitality  of  General  and  Mrs.  Washington.  He  visited 
York  town,  and  on  the  forty- third  anniversary  of  the  surrender 
of  Cornwallis  there  was  a  grand  celebration,  and  Lafayette 
held  a  reception  in  Washington's  old  war  tent. 

During  his  tour  of  the  states  there  was  a  great  variety  of 
celebrations.     In  some  towns  hundreds  of  little  girls  strewed 

MAK.   &  DEF.  —  II 


i66 


LAFAYETTE 


flowers  in  his  path.  At  others  he  was  met  by  school  children 
who  marched  ahead  singing  a  welcome  as  he  entered  the 
town.  Reunions  of  surviving  Revolutionary  soldiers  were 
held  everywhere.  At  Buffalo  he  was  greeted  by  the  old  In- 
dian chief  Red  Jacket,  who  had  served  under  his  command. 
The  old  Indian  said :  "  Alas !  time  has  left  my  white  brother  red 

cheeks  and  a  head  covered 
with  hair;  but  for  me  — 
look!"  and  pulling  off  his 
cap  showed  that  his  head 
was  bald .  Lafayette  then 
removed  the  wig  covering 
his  own  baldness,  much 
to  the  surprise  and  joy  of 
the  old  chief. 

Probably  the  most  re- 
markable event  was  the 
gathering  at  Bunker  Hill 
on  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  the  battle.  At  the  head 
of  a  procession  of  7000 
people  marched  200  of- 
ficers and  soldiers  of  the 
Revolution,  forty  of  whom 
fought  on  the  field  fifty 
years  before.  The  Rev. 
Joseph  Thaxter,  who  was  chaplain  of  Colonel  Prescott's  regi- 
ment on  the  day  of  the  battle,  offered  prayer.  Daniel  Web- 
ster was  the  orator  of  the  day,  and  Lafayette  laid  the  corner 
stone  of  the  monument  that  marks  the  place  of  the  battle. 

On  his  sixty-eighth  birthday  Lafayette  sailed  for  home, 
happy  in  the  expressions  of  a  grateful  people.     He  lived  nine 


Lafayette  Statue  presented  by  School 
Children  to  the  French 


VISIT   TO   THE    UNITED    STATES   IN    1 8 24 


167 


years  after  this  as  a  private  citizen,  spending  most  of  the 
time  at  his  country  estate,  a  luxury  made  possible  by  a  gift 
from  the  United  States  government,  for  during  the  long  period 
of  war  in  France  he  had  lost  all  his  ancestral  estates. 

On  July  4, 1900,  a  statue  of  Lafayette,  paid  for  by  the  school 
children  of  the  United  States,  was  unveiled  in  Paris  and  pre- 
sented to  the  French  people  as  a  testimony  of  the  appreciation 
of  the  present  generation  for  the  man  who  helped  America 
in  her  great  need. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Boyhood  of  the  young  marquis.  Became  an 
officer  in  the  French  army.  Interest  in  American  colonists  aroused. 
Decided  to  help  the  cause.  Served  five  years.  For  forty  years  in  French 
service.     Visited  the  United  States  in  1824-1825. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  story  describing  Lafayette's  visit  to 
the  United  States  in  1824.  II.  Why  does  Lafayette  deserve  our  ad- 
miration ? 


Slhffei  ''iiM' 


The  National  Capitol  as  it  was  in  1825 


ANDREW  JACKSON  —  WAR  HERO  AND 
PRESIDENT 

While  Lafayette  was  in  America,  probably  the  man  most 
talked  about,  except  himself,  was  Andrew  Jackson.  Jackson 
had  been  a  presidential  candidate  in  1824  and,  although  not 
elected,  was  still  a  popular  hero. 

Andrew  Jackson  was  born  in  the  hill  region  of  North  Caro- 
lina very  near  the  southwestern  boundary,  March  15,  1767. 
His  parents  were  Scotch-Irish,  and  had  lived  in  America  but 
two  years.  His  father  died  about  the  time  of  Andrew's 
birth,  and  his  thrifty  mother  supported  her  three  boys  by  spin- 
ning flax.  Much  of  Andrew's  childhood  was  spent  at  the 
home  of  an  uncle  who  lived  a  few  miles  over  the  line  of  South 
Carolina. 

Andy,  as  he  was  known,  was  a  tall,  slender  boy,  with  red 
hair  and  freckled  face.  He  was  wild,  mischievous,  and 
quick-tempered.  Although  he  had  frequent  quarrels  with  his 
boy  friends,  he  was  devotedly  fond  of  his  mother,  and  kind  to 
all  animals,  particularly  to  dogs  and  horses.  From  early 
childhood  he  was  a  fearless  rider,  and  later  in  life  owned  many 
fine  horses. 

His  boyhood  was  spent  in  a  frontier  country,  like  that  in 

which  Daniel  Boone  grew  up,  where  the  schools  were  poor  and 

of  short  duration.     So  in  school  Andy  learned  little  save 

reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic;  but  his  senses  were  keenly 

alert  and  he  early  became  well  informed. 

He  was  nine  years  old  when  the  colonies  declared  their 

168 


EARLY   LIFE 


169 


independence.  Rumors  of  war  reached  his  home,  but  it  was 
not  until  four  years  later  that  the  hill  country  of  the  Caro- 
linas  was  invaded  by  the  English.  The  army  of  the  enemy 
then  swept  through  that  neighborhood,  and  the  thirteen-year- 
old  Andrew  saw  his 
brother,  cousins,  and 
neighbors  wounded 
and  dying.  The 
church  was  used  as 
a  hospital;  there  his 
mother  went  and 
nursed  the  sick  and 
wounded.  Andrew 
and  his  brother  Rob- 
ert waited  on  her  and 
ran  errands.  They 
were  in  and  out  of 
the  building,  so  could 
see  what  suffering 
resulted  from  war. 
The  horror  of  it  en- 
raged the  sensitive 
boy,  and  he  was  eager 

to  play  a  man's  part  Andrew  refuses  to  obey  the  Officer 

in  fighting  the  enemy.  The  time  soon  came  when  even  four- 
teen-year-old boys  were  useful  in  protecting  homes  and  prop- 
erty against  invaders. 

In  one  of  the  raids  by  the  enemy,  Andrew  and  his  brother 
Robert  were  taken  prisoners  in  the  home  of  their  cousin, 
Lieutenant  Crawford.  The  English  officers  took  what  they 
wished  in  the  house,  and  then  one  of  them  ordered  Andrew 
to  clean  his  mud-bespattered  jackboots.     Andrew  replied, 


170  ANDREW  JACKSON 

"  Sir,  I  am  a  prisoner  of  war  and  not  your  slave."  Angered 
by  the  reply,  the  officer  struck  the  boy  with  his  sword,  wound- 
ing him  on  the  head  and  on  one  hand.  The  scars  of  both 
wounds  remained  until  his  death. 

With  twenty  other  prisoners,  the  Jackson  boys  were  taken 
forty  miles  distant,  and  not  allowed  any  food  or  a  drop  of 
water  on  the  way.  They  were  then  thrust  into  a  small 
inclosure  with  over  200  other  prisoners.  Smallpox  soon 
broke  out  among  them.  Mrs.  Jackson  succeeded  in  secur- 
ing the  release  of  her  boys,  but  not  until  both  were  sick.  Rob- 
ert lived  only  two  days  after  reaching  home,  and  Andrew  was 
for  many  weeks  very  sick  with  smallpox.  Before  he  recovered, 
his  mother  had  died.  So  we  find  Andrew  Jackson  at  the  age 
of  fifteen  without  father,  mother,  or  brothers,  much  broken 
in  health  and  very  bitter  toward  the  English  as  the  cause  of 
his  sufferings. 

At  seventeen  he  began  to  study  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
practice  by  the  spring  of  1787.  He  then  joined  a  company 
of  emigrants  who  were  going  over  the  mountains  to  settle  in 
Tennessee.  Lawyers  were  few  in  that  new  country.  Young 
Jackson  built  up  a  large  practice,  and  soon  was  the  owner 
of  hundreds  of  acres  of  land.  It  was  not  long  before  he  was 
appointed  United  States  District  Attorney  for  that  section,  and 
he  was  fearless  in  the  performance  of  his  duty.  In  his  efforts 
to  maintain  order  among  the  frontiersmen  and  wild  adven- 
turers who  had  flocked  to  the  new  territory,  Jackson  some- 
times had  to  fight  to  preserve  the  dignity  of  the  law.  The 
frontier  life  was  rough.  Disputes  were  settled  quickly  and 
often  violently.  Jackson  was  hot-tempered  and  a  good  shot. 
One  of  the  many  duels  fought  by  him  was  in  1806,  when  he 
killed  young  Charles  Dickinson.  This  quarrel  grew  out  of 
both  political  and  domestic  conditions.     Dickinson  believed 


WAR   OF    l8l2 


171 


that  Jackson  stood  in  his  way  to  political  preferment,  and 
Jackson  resented  some  slurs  upon  Mrs.  Jackson  made  by 
Dickinson.  The  two  men  were  well  matched  and  both  were 
wounded;  but  Jackson  recovered,  while  his  opponent  bled 
to  death. 

Jackson  served  in  the  House  of  Representatives  and  was 
appointed  to  the  United  States  Senate,  but  resigned,  and  when 
he  was  scarcely  thirty-two  years  of  age  became  judge  of  the 
highest  court  of  Tennessee. 

When  the  War  of  181 2  broke  out,  Jackson  offered  to  raise 
and  lead  against  the  enemy  an  army  of  2000  men,  but  for 
nearly  two  years  his  offer  was  not  accepted.  The  last  of 
August,  1 813,  a  band  of 
Creek  Indians,  aroused 
by  the  English,  attacked 
Fort  Mimms,  in  southern 
Alabama,  and  massacred 
between  four  and  five 
hundred  white  people. 
The  neighboring  state  of 
Tennessee     promptly 


Creek  War 


raised  3500  soldiers  to  be 
sent  against  the  Creeks. 
Jackson  was  the  choice  for  commander,  but  he  was  in  bed, 
suffering  from  wounds  received  in  a  foolish  quarrel  two  weeks 
before.  When  word  reached  him,  he  at  once  began  to  issue 
orders,  and  in  three  days  he  rose  from  his  bed  and  started 
on  the  march  to  Alabama.  When  his  physician  was  asked 
whether  the  general  was  able  to  go,  he  replied,  "  No  other  man 
would  be  able  in  his  condition."  But  Jackson  went,  with  his 
left  arm  in  a  sling  and  with  hardly  strength  enough  to  sit  on 
his  horse. 


172  ANDREW  JACKSON 

Because  of  the  poor  facilities  for  transportation  and  the 
sparsely  settled  country  through  which  the  army  marched, 
food  for  soldiers  and  horses  was  very  difficult  to  get.  For 
weeks  before  reaching  the  land  of  the  Creeks,  General  Jack- 
son's greatest  problem  was  how  to  keep  his  men  from  starv- 
ing. Hungry  men  are  hard  to  control,  and  no  less  than  four 
times  did  his  troops  break  out  in  open  mutiny.  But  at  all 
times  Jackson  was  equal  to  the  emergency.  This  campaign 
against  the  Creek  Indians  lasted  eight  months,  and  resulted 
in  the  complete  conquest  of  the  savages. 

In  May,  18 14,  as  a  reward  for  this  work,  General  Jackson 
was  appointed  major  general  and  was  given  command  of 
the  United  States  forces  in  the  south,  with  headquarters  at 
Mobile.  Florida  was  at  this  time  a  Spanish  colony,  and 
Spain  was  at  peace  with  the  United  States.  But  that  power 
was  secretly  in  sympathy  with  England,  and  English  troops 
made  Pensacola,  in  Florida,  a  base  of  operations  against 
Mobile.  General  Jackson,  after  having  remonstrated  in 
vain  with  the  governor  of  Pensacola  for  affording  shelter 
and  protection  to  the  enemies  of  the  United  States,  marched 
against  the  place,  stormed  the  town,  and  compelled  the 
English  to  abandon  Florida.  After  he  had  returned  to  his 
headquarters  in  Mobile,  word  came  that  the  English,  in 
order  to  control  the  Mississippi  River,  were  moving  to  cap- 
ture New  Orleans. 

New  Orleans  was  poorly  prepared  for  defense  against  vet- 
eran English  soldiers,  so  Jackson's  problem  was  a  difficult 
one.  With  great  dispatch,  he  made  himself  familiar  with  the 
surrounding  country,  and  decided  to  prevent  the  English 
from  attacking  the  city  itself.  Early  in  the  afternoon  of 
December  23,  he  was  told  that  the  English  army  was  within 
eight  miles  of  the  city.    He  at  once  summoned  the  aides, 


WAR   OF    l8l2 


r73 


saying:  "Gentlemen,  the  British  are  below.  We  must  fight 
them  to-night."  Messengers  were  sent  ordering  every  divi- 
sion to  its  assigned  position,  and,  three  hours  later,  Jack- 
son left  the  city  to  meet  the  enemy.  The  English  were  sur- 
prised on  the  road  eight  miles  below  New  Orleans,  and  the 
fighting  lasted  half  that  night. 

The  next  day,  December  24,  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  Ghent  in  Belgium.  But  as  there  was  no  Atlantic  cable, 
the  official  news  did  not  reach  Jackson  till  March  6,  181 5. 
The  greater  part  of  the  fighting  near  New  Orleans  took 
place  after  the  two  countries  were  supposed  to  be  at  peace. 

The  campaign  lasted  two  weeks  longer,  and  the  great  final 
battle  was  fought  on  January  8,  when  the  brave  English 
soldiers  met  a  crushing  defeat  in  attacking  Jackson's  line  of 
entrenchments. 

Jackson's   victory   is   remarkable   because   the   attacking 


Battle  of  New  Orleans 


174  ANDREW  JACKSON 

army  was  made  up  of  splendidly  trained  English  veterans 
under  brave  and  experienced  commanders,  while  many  of 
the  American  soldiers  had  never  seen  a  battle  and  all  were 
poorly  armed.  Once  at  a  critical  moment  300  recruits  came 
down  the  river  to  Jackson's  camp,  but  not  a  man  had  a 
weapon,  and  there  was  not  one  to  spare  in  the  camp.  Jackson 
made  the  best  of  what  he  had.  His  generalship  was  superb. 
When  he  knew  he  was  too  weak  to  attack  the  enemy,  he 
held  his  ground  doggedly  and  earned  the  title,  "  Old 
Hickory,"  that  his  soldiers  loved  to  call  him. 

Three  years  later,  Jackson  commanded  in  another  war 
with  the  Creek  Indians,  part  of  whom  were  in  United 
States  territory  and  a  part  in  Florida.  During  the  war, 
Jackson  followed  a  band  over  the  line,  and  finding  they 
received  aid  from  the  Spanish  settlements,  he  captured 
two  towns.  The  government  afterwards  gave  these  towns 
back  to  Spain,  but  the  raid  helped  the  Spanish  to  decide 
to  sell  the  territory,  as  it  was  becoming  more  and  more 
difficult  to  defend.  In  1819  Florida  was  purchased  for 
$5,000,000,  and  in  1821  Jackson  was  appointed  the  first 
governor. 

General  Jackson's  home  in  Tennessee  was  a  fine  estate  of 
1 100  acres  with  a  spacious  mansion,  known  as  the  Hermit- 
age, near  Nashville.  He  lived  the  life  of  the  country 
gentleman,  and  eagerly  returned  to  his  home  after  any 
period  of  public  service.  He  had  no  children,  but  adopted 
several.  Two  nephews  of  his  wife  grew  up  as  his  sons,  one 
bearing  the  name  Andrew  Jackson.  During  the  Creek  wars 
a  mother  was  found  dead  with  a  babe  in  her  arms.  The  gen- 
eral took  the  child,  found  some  one  to  care  for  it,  and  then 
sent  it  to  the  Hermitage,  where  it  found  a  happy  home. 

In    1824   Jackson   was   nominated   for   the   presidency. 


PRESIDENT 


175 


The  Hermitage 

None  of  the  four  candidates  that  year  received  a  majority 
of  the  261  electoral  votes,  and  the  election  went  to  the 
House  of  Representatives,  by  whom  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  made  President.  Jackson  was  hurt  because  of  this 
selection,  and  the  next  four  years  were  one  continuous  pres- 
idential campaign  for  him.  He  was  elected  with  a  big  vote 
in  1828.  A  few  weeks  later,  on  December  22,  his  wife  died 
very  suddenly.  His  biographer  says  that  he  never  re- 
covered from  this  shock.  He  had  always  been  a  hot- 
tempered  man,  given  to  the  use  of  strong  language  and 
having  many  quarrels  which  resulted  in  duels.  He  now 
became  very  much  subdued;  one  of  his  friends  declared, 
"  twenty  years  older  in  a  night." 

Early  in  January,  he  started  for  Washington  to  assume  the 
duties  of  President.  The  route  was  by  steamboat  down  the 
Cumberland   and   up   the   Ohio   to  Pittsburg,  then   across 


176  ANDREW  JACKSON 

Pennsylvania  to  the  capital.  Everywhere  he  was  enthusiastic- 
ally received  as  a  great  hero  and  the  friend  of  the  people.  He 
had  always  been  a  man  of  strong  likes  and  dislikes.  He  also 
possessed  the  notion  that  a  man  who  did  not  vote  for  him  was 
his  enemy.  He  confused  political  questions  with  personal  feel- 
ings. So,  when  he  became  President,  he  promptly  dismissed 
from  office  those  who  had  not  voted  for  him  and  appointed 
his  friends,  regardless  of  their  fitness  for  the  work.  Thus  he 
introduced  what  has  been  known  as  the  "Spoils  System." 

After  the  War  of  181 2,  a  new  tariff  had  been  placed  on 
imported  goods  as  a  protection  to  the  small  manufacturing 
establishments  that  had  been  started  in  the  United  States. 
In  1824,  and  again  in  1828,  the  tariff  was  made  higher  than 
before.  As  the  southern  states  did  not  manufacture  but 
brought  from  Europe  many  things  in  exchange  for  their 
cotton,  they  paid  a  large  proportion  of  the  tariff.  Much 
objection  was  made  by  the  South.  Finally,  South  Carolina, 
in  1832,  adopted  a  Nullification  Act  which  declared  the 
tariff  laws  of  the  United  States  null  and  void  in  that  state. 
Now  President  Jackson  did  not  favor  a  high  tariff,  and 
many  southern  people  expected  his  help.  But  at  a  Jef- 
ferson birthday  banquet  in  1830,  he  had  surprised  many  of 
his  friends  by  giving  a  toast  of  his  own  choosing,  "  The 
Federal  Union:    It  must  be  preserved." 

Jackson  kept  his  word  when  the  crisis  came.  As  President, 
it  was  his  duty  to  enforce  the  laws  of  Congress  in  all  states 
alike.  So  when  South  Carolina  tried  to  nullify  the  tariff 
law,  he  ordered  General  Scott  to  Charleston  to  enforce 
obedience.  This  fearless  conduct  of  President  Jackson 
preserved  the  Union.  In  a  short  time  the  tariff  was  reduced 
by  Congress,  but  not  abolished;  it  was  collected  in  South 
Carolina  as  in  other  states, 


PRESIDENT 


177 


In  ^37  Jackson  returned  to  his  old  home,  the  Hermitage, 
where  he  lived  until  1845,  ctying  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight. 
He  was  a  remarkable  man,  a  product  of  the  humblest  and 
poorest  people  in  a  wild  and  unsettled  part  of  a  new  country, 
and  owed  little  or  nothing  to  education.  He  rose  by  his  own 
efforts  to  the  highest  judicial  position  in  his  state,  to  the  pin- 
nacle of  military  power,  and  to  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States.  In  each  place  he  discharged  his  duties  faith- 
fully. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Born  of  poor  Scotch-Irish  parents.  As  a  child 
he  saw  the  terrors  of  war.  Death  of  mother  and  brother.  Studied 
law  and  went  to  Tennessee.  Served  in  Congress  and  ajj  judge  of  state 
supreme  court.  Served  against  Creek  Indians.  Commanded  at  battle 
of  New  Orleans.  Became  President.  Spoils  system.  Prevented 
nullification. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  paragraph  on  what  you  consider 
Jackson's  greatest  work.  Give  your  reasons  in  full.  II.  Why  did 
people  like  Jackson  so  well,  although  he  was  so  hot-tempered? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Nashville,  Pensacola,  New  Orleans. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Parton,  "  General  Jackson." 

Biography.  —  Burton,  "Four  American  Patriots,"  pp.  133-192; 
Brooks,  "Century  Book  of  Famous  Americans,"  pp.  162-172;  Blaisdell 
and  Ball,  "Hero  Stories  from  American  History,"  pp.  185-198;  Brown, 
"Andrew  Jackson." 

Fiction.  —  Stoddard,  "The  Errand  Boy  of  Andrew  Jackson." 


HENRY  CLAY,  THE  GREAT  PEACEMAKER 

In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  there  were 
three  men  prominent  in  American  affairs.  They  were  John 
C.  Calhoun  of  South  Carolina,  Daniel  Webster  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky.  Although  none 
of  them  became  President,  they  had  a  greater  influence 
in  guiding  public  opinion  and  in  shaping  the  policies  of 
their  parties  than  the  Presidents  with  whom  they  were 
associated. 

The  life  story  of  Henry  Clay  is  most  interesting  because 
it  shows  us  how  in  this  country  a  poor  boy  may,  by  his 
own  energy  and  ability,  rise  to  a  position  of  great  use- 
fulness. Clay  was  born  in  Hanover  County,  Virginia,  on 
the  1 2th  of  April,  1777.  His  father  died  when  Henry  was 
four  years  old,  leaving  a  small  farm  and  a  large  family  to 
the  care  of  his  mother.  Mrs.  Clay  struggled  bravely  to 
support  her  children,  but  she  was  able  to  give  them  only 
a  limited  education.  About  all  the  schooling  Henry  had 
was  in  the  little  log  schoolhouse  of  the  neighborhood.  Like 
other  boys  on  a  farm,  he  had  to  help  with  the  work  at  home. 
As  soon  as  he  was  able  to  guide  a  plow,  he  helped  with  the 
plowing  or  the  cultivating.  Often  in  the  early  morning,  he 
would  go  to  mill  on  horseback  with  a  bag  of  corn  or  wheat 
for  a  saddle,  and  bring  back  the  flour  for  the  family. 

The  district  in  which  they  lived  was  called  the  "  Slashes," 

because  of  its  low,  marshy  nature,  and  in  after  years  Clay 

was  known  as  "the  Millboy  of  the  Slashes." 

178 


EARLY   LIFE  1 79 

When  he  was  fourteen  years  old,  Henry  went  to  work  in  a 
store  in  the  city  of  Richmond.  He  did  his  work  there  faith- 
fully, and  spent  his  leisure  time  in  reading.  About  this  time, 
Henry's  mother  remarried,  and  his  stepfather,  through  in- 
fluential friends,  obtained  a  place  for  him  as  clerk  in  the 
court  of  chancery.  A  part  of  his  duties  was  to  copy  the 
records  of  the  court.  The  country  boy  was  at  first  laughed 
at  by  the  other  clerks,  for  he  wore  homespun  clothes  and  was 
shy  and  awkward.  But  he  had  a  genial,  sunny  nature,  and 
soon  made  friends  with  them.  Moreover,  his  records  were 
well  kept,  and  his  handwriting  clear  and  careful.  So,  when 
the  judge  of  the  court  wished  a  young  man  to  write  out 
and  record  his  decisions,  he  selected  Clay.  This  judge,  who 
had  the  title  of  Chancellor,  was  George  Wythe,  one  of  Vir- 
ginia's greatest  lawyers  and  statesmen.  He  was  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  made  the  Constitution.  It  was  in  his  office 
that  Thomas  Jefferson  studied  law. 

So,  you  see,  it  was  a  stroke  of  good  fortune  for  young  Clay 
to  come  under  the  influence  of  this  great  man.  Wythe  liked 
the  bright  boy,  and  took  an  interest  in  his  reading  and  studies. 
He  advised  Henry  to  study  law,  and  loaned  him  books  for 
that  purpose.  After  four  years  as  Wythe's  secretary,  Clay 
read  law  for  a  year  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  During 
this  time,  he  trained  his  memory  and  cultivated  his  voice  by 
reading  some  good  book,  usually  a  history,  and  then  trying 
to  recite  what  he  had  just  read.  In  the  fields  and  forests,  or 
sometimes  in  a  barn,  with  only  the  cattle  for  listeners,  as  he 
tells  us,  he  tried  these  speeches.  He  organized  also  among 
the  young  men  of  Richmond  a  debating  club  in  which  they 
probably  settled  to  their  own  satisfaction  all  the  burning 
questions  of  the  day.    In  these  simple  and  practical  ways  he 


180  HENRY   CLAY 

laid  the  foundation  of  his  great  skill  as  a  public  speaker  and 
debater. 

Having  fitted  himself  as  a  lawyer,  Clay  now  began  to  look 
about  for  a  place  in  which  to  practice  his  profession.  His 
parents  had  moved  to  Lexington,  Kentucky,  a  few  years 
before,  so  he  decided  to  go  there.  Like  many  others,  he  felt 
that  the  West  offered  greater  opportunities  for  an  ambitious 
young  man. 

Lexington,  at  that  time,  was  a  rough  pioneer  town  on  the 
frontier.  But  descendants  of  some  of  the  best  families 
of  Virginia  had  already  settled  there,  and  among  these 
Clay  found  congenial  spirits.  He  had  the  happy  fac- 
ulty of  making  friends  readily,  and  he  was  soon  one  of  the 
leading  lawyers  of  the  place.  The  story  is  told  of  an  experi- 
ence he  had  as  a  member  of  a  debating  club  which  he  joined 
soon  after  coming  to  Lexington.  He  had  attended  several 
meetings,  but  had  taken  no  part  in  the  proceedings.  One 
evening  as  the  debate  was  about  to  be  closed,  he  said  to  a 
friend  that  the  subject  did  not  seem  to  him  to  have  been 
fully  discussed.  He  was  asked  to  speak,  but  when  he  arose 
was  so  embarrassed  that  he  began,  "Gentlemen  of  the 
Jury."  The  members  of  the  club  laughed  at  this  mistake, 
and '  his  embarrassment  naturally  increased.  But  quickly 
collecting  his  wits,  he  delivered  an  oration  that  his  friends 
said  afterwards  was  one  of  the  best  speeches  of  his  life. 

Much  of  his  early  practice  was  in  criminal  cases,  where  his 
sympathetic  nature  led  him  to  take  the  side  of  the  defense. 
Although  he  was  not  a  deep  student  of  law,  he  had  the 
power  of  making  people  believe  as  he  did,  and  was  usually 
successful  in  pleading  before  a  jury.  He  was  as  willing  to 
take  a  case  for  a  poor  client  as  for  a  rich  one.  Indeed,  through- 
out his  life,  his  courtesy  toward  all  classes  was  most  marked. 


LAWYER  l8l 

At  one  time  in  later  years,  when  he  was  riding  with  his  young 
son,  they  met  a  negro  who  lifted  his  hat  respectfully.  Clay 
replied  to  the  greeting,  but  his  son  did  not.  Noticing  this, 
Clay  turned  to  the  boy  and  said,  "  My  son,  would  you  allow 
a  slave  to  show  greater  courtesy  than  you  do?  " 

Clay  prospered  so  rapidly  that  he  was  able  in  1799  to  pur- 
chase an  estate  of  about  600  acres  on  the  outskirts  of  Lexing- 
ton. He  named  the  new  home  Ashland,  and  to  it  brought  his 
young  bride.  Here  they  lived  happily  for  more  than  fifty 
years,  and  here,  after  he  became  prominent  in  national  affairs, 
Clay  entertained  his  friends  lavishly.  A  man  of  his  marked 
ability  could  not  long  keep  out  of  public  life,  so  we  soon  hear 
of  him  in  the  Kentucky  legislature.  He  served  also  for  two 
short  terms  in  the  United  States  Senate. 

But  it  was  not  until  181 1  that  he  really  began  his  career  as 
a  national  statesman.  In  that  year  he  was  elected  to  Congress 
from  the  Lexington  district,  and  was  chosen  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  The  country  was  on  the  verge  of 
its  second  great  war.  England  had  interfered  with  our 
commerce.  Under  the  pretense  of  searching  for  British 
subjects,  she  claimed  the  right  to  stop  our  merchant  ships 
and  take  from  them  any  sailors  that  wrere  natives  of  Great 
Britain.  Her  motto  was,  "Once  an  Englishman,  always  an 
Englishman,"  while  we  believed  that  a  man  who  came  to  our 
country  had  a  right  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  he  therefore  ceased  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  country 
from  which  he  came.  Clay  was  one  of  the  leading  men  in 
demanding  that  the  rights  of  Americans,  and  especially  of 
American  sailors,  be  respected,  and  it  was  largely  through  his 
influence  that  the  War  of  181 2  was  declared.  How  this  wrar 
was  fought  and  how  gallantly  our  little  navy  swept  the  seas 
has  been  told  elsewhere.     It  developed  in  us  a  national 

MAK.   &  DEF.  —  12 


1 82  HENRY   CLAY 

spirit,  and  made  us  respected  at  home  and  abroad.  Clay  was 
sent  to  Europe  as  one  of  the  commissioners  to  arrange  a 
treaty  of  peace.  The  treaty  was  concluded  December  24, 
1814,  and  Clay,  returning  home,  resumed  his  seat  in  Con- 
gress, in  one  house  or  the  other  of  which  he  served  almost 
continuously  until  his  death. 

After  peace  had  been  declared,  an  era  of  good  feeling 
began  in  the  United  States.  The  Federalist  party  had  op- 
posed the  war  and  as  a  result  had  lost  its  influence,  so  that 
the  Republican  party  was  the  only  influential  factor  in 
national  affairs.  During  the  war,  our  trade  with  foreign 
countries  had  been  practically  destroyed.  As  a  result,  we  were 
obliged  to  manufacture  our  own  goods,  especially  in  the 
New  England  states,  where  great  cotton  and  woolen  mills 
were  established.  After  the  war,  foreign-made  goods  began 
to  flood  our  markets.  This  led  to  the  passage  by  Congress 
of  a  tariff  to  protect  American  industries  and  to  provide 
money  for  national  improvements. 

One  of  the  marked  movements  of  this  period  of  our  history 
was  the  rapid  growth  of  the  West.  Emigrants  from  Europe 
and  from  the  more  easterly  states  were  flowing  over  the 
Alleghenies  in  a  constant  stream  into  the  fertile  valleys  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi.  The  population  of  Ohio,  which  was 
45,000  in  1800,  had  increased  to  580,000  in  1820.  From  the 
vast  domain  between  the  Alleghenies  and  the  Mississippi, 
the  great  and  powerful  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Mississippi,  and  Alabama  were  created  during  the  years 
between  1803  and  1819.  Western  travel  was  mainly  by  flat- 
boats,  where  the  rivers  were  navigable,  or  by  wagons.  The 
settler  would  put  his  household  goods  and  family  utensils 
in  a  wagon  and  travel  into  the  new  country  until  he  found 
a  favorable  spot  to  locate.    Here  he  would  build  a  log  cabin, 


GROWTH   OF  THE   WEST 


I»3 


clear  the  land,  and  plant  his  crops.  The  wagons  were 
curious  sights,  roofed  over  as  they  were  with  canvas,  like 
a  tent.  They  were  called  prairie  schooners,  and  in  some 
sections  were  also  known  as  "Conestoga"  wagons.  It  is 
said  that  in  one  year  over  twelve  thousand  of  them  came 
into  Pittsburg  heavily  laden  with  freight  and  passengers. 
From  New  York  and  the  East  goods  were  brought  up  the 
Hudson  in  sloops,  then  taken  by  wagon  to  the  falls  of  the 


Emigrant's  Wagon 

Mohawk.  Here  they  were  loaded  into  "  Schenectady 
boats"  and  poled  up  the  Mohawk  to  Oneida  Lake  and 
Lake  Ontario.  Then  by  sloop  to  the  falls  of  the  Niagara, 
a  short  "carry"  overland  to  Lake  Erie,  then  by  boat  to 
Westfield  on  this  lake,  and  by  wagons  to  Chautauqua 
Lake.  In  this  roundabout  way,  the  cargo  reached  the 
headwaters  of  the  Ohio,  down  whose  broad  surface  it  floated 
in  flatboats  to  its  long  journey's  end.  It  was  seen  that 
some  more  direct  route  to  the  West  must  be  provided, 


184 


HENRY   CLAY 


and   this   was  one   of   the   reasons   for   building   the   Erie 
Canal. 

Clay  was  foremost  in  urging  a  system  of  internal  improve- 
ments at  government  expense.  He  saw  that  one  of  the  great 
problems  of  the  day  was  the  opening  of  the  West  for  settle- 
ment. One  of  the  plans  for  accomplishing  this  was  the 
building  of  the  Cumberland  Road.  It  was  begun  in  1806, 
and  was  built  partly  by  the  government  and  partly  by  the 
states  through  which  it  passed.  The  route  followed  was  al- 
most exactly  the  one  taken  by  General  Braddock's  army  in 
the  French  and  Indian  War.  Starting  at  Cumberland,  Mary- 
land, it  extended  in  a  northwesterly  direction  to  Washing- 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


I 1 1        1 l_ 


The  National  Road 

ton,  Pennsylvania.  Then  turning  west,  it  passed  through  the 
northern  part  of  West  Virginia  to  Wheeling  on  the  Ohio  River. 
From  there,  it  extended  westward  through  the  central  parts  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  passing  through  the  present  pros- 
perous cities  of  Columbus  in  Ohio,  and  Indianapolis  and 
Terre  Haute  in  Indiana  to  its  western  terminus  at  Vandalia, 
Illinois.  It  was  completed  in  1818  and  became  a  main  ave- 
nue of  trade  and  travel.  In  this  expansion  and  development 
of  the  West,  Clay,  as  a  western  man,  was  intensely  interested. 
But  amid  the  rapid  growth  and  prosperity  of  our  country, 
another  great  national  problem  began  to  occupy  men's 
minds.     Slavery,  you  will  remember,  had  been  early  intro- 


COMPROMISE  OF    1820  1 85 

duced  into  America,  and  during  the  colonial  period  had 
existed  throughout  the  colonies. 

Few  of  the  earlier  statesmen  had  ventured  to  defend  it  on 
moral  grounds,  and  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution  it  was 
gradually  dying  out  in  the  North.  Opposition  to  it  was 
most  marked  in  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787 
among  such  leaders  as  Washington,  Madison,  and  Franklin. 
But  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  and  the  rapid  increase 
in  the  value  of  the  cotton  crop  made  slave  labor  very  profit- 
able. So  the  southern  states  began  to  feel  that  slavery 
was  just  and  its  continuance  necessary  for  their  prosperity. 
As  the  western  territory  became  settled  and  states  were 
organized,  the  question  arose  whether  these  new  states 
should  be  admitted  into  the  Union  as  slaveholding  or 
free  states.  Slavery  had  already  been  forbidden  in  the 
Northwest  Territory,  and  from  this  territory  the  free  states  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  had  been  created.  In  the  new 
states  south  of  the  Ohio  River  slavery  was  permitted.  But 
in  the  great  stretch  of  land  we  had  acquired  by  the  Loui- 
siana purchase,  the  question  of  slavery  was  still  to  be  settled. 
Missouri  was  one  of  the  first  states  to  be  formed  from  this 
territory.  If  left  to  herself,  she  would  naturally  permit 
slavery,  for  her  pioneers  were  mostly  from  the  South. 

The  question  was  sharply  debated  in  Congress,  for  the 
North  feared  the  further  extension  of  the  political  power  of 
the  South.  At  last,  by  the  Compromise  of  1820,  of  which 
Clay,  although  not  the  author,  was  the  warm '  supporter, 
Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  slave  state  while,  with  this  excep- 
tion, slavery  was  forbidden  in  all  the  territory  north  of  360  30'. 

Again  in  1832,  when  South  Carolina,  angered  because  of 
a  high  protective  tariff,  threatened  to  secede  from  the  Union, 
Clay  came  forward  with  another  compromise  plan  which 


1 86  HENRY   CLAY 

succeeded  in  quieting  the  country  for  a  while.  For  these 
measures  as  well  as  for  others  which  made  for  peace  and  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Union,  Clay  won  the  title  of  "  the 
Great  Peacemaker."  Indeed,  his  love  of  country  and  his 
desire  to  serve  it  honestly  and  faithfully  are  the  most  marked 
features  of  his  career  as  a  statesman.  He  believed  in  the 
continuance  of  the  national  banking  system,  and  in  a  tariff 
to  protect  American  industries. 

His  love  of  liberty  led  him  to  support  Greece  in  her  war 
for  independence.  His  sympathies  were  also  enlisted  in 
behalf  of  the  struggling  South  American  republics.  Clay 
was  a  slaveholder,  but  was  always  humane  and  kind  in  his 
treatment  of  his  slaves,  as  is  shown  by  an  extract  from  a  letter 
to  a  friend  in  the  North. 

*^J       &J?        ^Z  -ty  </  -*    &*-*  U-~*  £L<  *e-         &*  -£-^rr?  -£^n 


^c^<. 


^>  j/.^Zs  /^/ 


WAR  WITH  MEXICO  1 87 

His  life's  ambition  was  to  be  President.  But  in  his  active 
public  career  he  had  made  many  enemies,  and  he  was  put 
aside  in  favor  of  smaller  men  against  whom  no  faction  of  his 
party  might  revolt.  This  was  a  bitter  disappointment  to 
him  and  to  his  friends.  His  great  ability,  his  power  of  leader- 
ship, and  his  lofty  patriotism  would  have  enabled  him  to  serve 
his  country  with  dignity  and  honor  in  that  high  office.  He 
never,  however,  sacrificed  his  principles  to  his  ambition.  At 
one  time,  in  order  to  carry  through  measures  which  he 
believed  to  be  necessary  for  the  peace  of  the  country, 
Senator  Clay  had  to  act  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  many 
political  friends.  He  was  warned  that  by  doing  so  he 
would  lose  their  support  for  the  presidency,  but  he  made 
this  immortal  reply,  "  I  would  rather  be  right  than  be 
President." 

During  these  years  the  question  of  slavery  was  increasing 
in  importance.  Conciliatory  measures  gave  only  temporary 
relief.  The  South,  in  order  to  gain  more  territory  in  which 
slavery  might  be  established,  had  brought  on  a  war  with 
Mexico.  The  pretext  for  war  was  most  flimsy  —  merely  the 
ownership  of  a  strip  of  land  between  the  Rio  Grande  and 
Nueces  rivers.  Although  we  won  every  battle  of  this  war, 
it  was  no  credit  to  us,  for  we  were  like  a  big  bully  fighting 
a  little  boy  for  property  which  he  honestly  believed  was  his. 
However,  as  a  result  of  the  war,  we  obtained  a  vast  tract  of 
land  north  of  Mexico  and  extending  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

It  was  expected  by  the  South  that  this  region  would 
eventually  be  made  into  slaveholding  states.  But  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California  changed  the  whole  course 
of  our  history.  In  the  great  rush  of  gold  seekers  to  that 
country,  northern  men  were  in  the  majority,  and  in  1850 
California  asked  for  admission  into  the  Union  as  a  free 


i88 


HENRY    CLAY 


state.  Again  the  whole  country  was  thrown  into  great 
excitement.  The  South  felt  that  the  Mexican  war  had 
been  fought  by  its  sons,  and  now  it  seemed  a  grievous  wrong 
that  the  results  of  the  war  should  strengthen  the  political 
power  of  the  free  states. 

Clay  had  expected  to  retire  to  private  life,  but  was  persuaded 
to  come  back  to  the  Senate.  He  hoped  to  reconcile  the  North 
and  the  South.     A  slave  owner  himself,  living  in  a  slave- 


Clay  speaking  in  the  Senate 

holding  state,  he  could  not  fully  realize  how  earnestly  the 
people  of  the  North  were  beginning  to  feel  that  slavery  was 
a  great  evil  that  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  extend  its  influence 
farther.  Clay  was  now  seventy-four  years  of  age,  with  a  life- 
time behind  him  rich  in  honorable  service  to  his  country.  He 
longed  to  harmonize  the  two  opposing  sections  of  the 
country,  for  to  him  the  integrity  of  the  Union  was  greater 
than  the  question  of  slavery. 


COMPROMISE   OF    1850  1 89 

So  he  introduced  the  Compromise  of  1850,  by  which  he 
hoped  to  satisfy  both  sides.  The  main  provisions  of  the  bill 
were:  [i)  that  California  should  be  admitted  as  a  free  state,  and 
(2)  that  all  the  other  territory  acquired  from  Mexico  should 
be  organized  without  any  reference  to  slavery.  The  measure 
became  a  law;  but  like  most  compromises  it  failed  to  satisfy 
either  side,  and  it  only  postponed  the  inevitable  struggle  of 
the  Civil  War.  In  its  support,  however,  Clay  was  governed 
by  his  great  love  for  his  country  and  his  earnest  desire  to  pre- 
serve the  Union.  His  last  great  public  effort  seemed  to  have 
exhausted  him,  for  his  health  failed  rapidly.  He  was  often 
so  feeble  that  he  could  with  difficulty  reach  his  seat  in  the 
Senate  chamber,  and  at  last  was  unable  to  attend  to  his  duties 
as  Senator. 

Possessing  the  love  and  confidence  of  the  whole  country, 
he  came  to  the  close  of  his  eventful  career,  and  on  the  29th 
of  June,  1852,  died  in  the  city  of  Washington.  He  was 
buried  at  Lexington,  and  his  last  resting  place  is  visited 
even  to-day  by  admirers  of  the  great  orator  and  statesman. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Early  life  and  efforts  to  get  an  education.  Com- 
mences the  practice  of  law.  Home  in  Lexington,  Kentucky.  Causes 
of  the  War  of  1812;  Clay's  share  in  it;  its  result.  Western  movement; 
means  and  routes  of  travel;  Erie  Canal  and  Cumberland  Road.  Begin- 
nings of  slavery  and  tariff  agitation;  Clay's  compromise  measures. 
Results. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Tell  the  story  of  Clay's  boyhood.  II.  In 
what  way  did  Clay  train  himself  as  a  public  speaker?  III.  What 
were  the  causes  of  the  War  of  1812?  IV.  Imagine  yourself  going  from 
New  York  to  Pittsburg  a  hundred  years  ago.  Describe  your  journey. 
V.  How  did  the  views  of  the  South  regarding  slavery  change  during 
Clay's  lifetime?  What  were  the  reasons  for  this  change?  VI.  Name 
the  three  great  compromise  measures  with  which  Clay's  name  is  asso- 
ciated.    VII.  Describe  one  of  these  measures.     VIII.  What  was  the 


igo 


HENRY   CLAY 


real  cause  of  the  Mexican  War?    IX.  What  was  Clay's  attitude  regard- 
ing slavery  ? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Richmond,  Va.,  and  Lexington,  Ky.  Trace 
the  Cumberland  Road:  Cumberland,  Md.;  Wheeling;  Columbus,  O.; 
Indianapolis;  Terre  Haute;  Vandalia. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Clay,  "  Speech  on  the  War  of  1812  ";  last  five  paragraphs. 
U.  S.  Reader,  pp.  284-285. 

Biography.  —  Cravens,  "Story  of  Henry  Clay";  Brooks,  "Century 
Book  of  Famous  Americans,"  pp.  145-155;  Williams,  "Some  Successful 
Americans,"  pp.  155-171. 


um         W 


^ 


Henry  Clay's  home  in  Kentucky 


DANIEL  WEBSTER,  THE  DEFENDER  OF  THE 
CONSTITUTION 

Among  the  great  statesmen  who  have  swayed  men's  minds 
by  their  persuasive  eloquence  or  have  convinced  them  by 
their  iron  logic,  the  name  of  Daniel  Webster  stands  pre- 
eminent. No  other  American  has  equaled  him  in  majesty 
of  presence  and  in  power  of  speech.  The  few  simple  words 
which  Lincoln  spoke  at  the  dedication  of  the  Gettysburg 
Cemetery  constitute,  without  question,  the  greatest  single 
oration  ever  delivered  by  an  American;  but,  excepting  this 
address,  our  history  and  our  literature  record  no  greater 
and  no  more  enduring  orations  than  those  given  by  Webster. 
While  Clay's  and  Calhoun's  speeches  are  forgotten,  those  of 
Webster  are  read  to-day  by  thousands.  They  are,  or  ought 
to  be,  in  every  school  reader,  to  be  learned  and  declaimed  by 
every  American  boy  who  loves  his  country.  It  is,  therefore, 
most  fitting  for  us  to  know  something  of  the  life  of  this  com- 
manding figure  in  our  history. 

Daniel  Webster  was  born  in  Salisbury  (now  Franklin),  New 
Hampshire,  on  the  18th  of  January,  1782.  His  ancestors 
were  Puritan  emigrants  who  came  to  the  New  World  soon 
after  the  founding  of  the  Plymouth  Colony.  They  settled  in 
New  Hampshire,  where,  in  a  log  cabin,  Daniel's  father, 
Ebenezer  Webster,  was  born.  He  grew  to  be  a  tall  man,  of 
splendid  physical  strength  and  of  sound  character.  Daniel 
used  to  say  that  his  father  was  the  handsomest  man  he  ever 
saw,  except  Daniel's  brother    Ezekiel.     Ebenezer  Webster 

served  in  the  French  and  Indian  wars,  where  he  rose  to  the 

191 


192  DANIEL   WEBSTER 

rank  of  captain,  then  married  and  settled  in  the  town  of 
Salisbury.  His  cabin  was  an  outpost  of  civilization,  on  the 
edge  of  the  primeval  forests  which  stretched  away  to  the 
far  off  French  settlements  of  Canada. 

When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out,  Ebenezer  Webster 
was  captain  of  the  militia  at  Salisbury.  The  little  company  of 
loyal  men  promptly  joined  the  Continental  Army  and  took 
part  in  the  siege  of  Boston.  Captain  Webster  served  faith- 
fully through  the  war.  He  was  in  the  battles  of  Bennington 
and  White  Plains,  and  won  the  approval  of  General  Stark 
and  of  Washington  himself.  In  1780  he  was  stationed  at 
West  Point,  at  the  time  Benedict  Arnold  was  in  command  of 
that  fortress.  It  is  said  that  on  the  night  when  Arnold's 
treason  was  discovered,  General  Washington  sent  for  Web- 
ster to  guard  his  tent.  Taking  him  by  the  hand,  Washington 
said,  "  Captain  Webster,  I  believe  I  can  trust  you." 

We  may  be  sure  that  in  after  years  Captain  Webster  often 
proudly  told  his  children  how  the  great  general  honored  and 
trusted  him.  But  in  our  account  of  Daniel's  family  we 
must  not  forget  to  honor  his  mother.  Some  one  has  said 
that  "the  more  mother  a  man  has  in  him,  the  better  he  is," 
and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  much  of  Webster's  success 
in  life  was  due  to  the  early  training  and  self-sacrificing  care 
his  mother  gave  him.  She  was  of  pioneer  New  Hampshire 
stock,  a  woman  of  noble  Christian  character  and  of  sound 
common  sense. 

Daniel  was  the  youngest  boy  in  a  family  of  ten  children, 
and  as  a  child  was  delicate.  For  this  reason,  and  also 
because  he  was  the  baby,  he  was  probably  petted  by  his 
parents  and  his  brothers  and  sisters.  He  was  allowed  to  play 
a  great  deal  and  to  run  free  in  the  fields  and  forests  in  the 
hope  that  Mother  Nature  might  strengthen  his  frail  body. 


BOYHOOD 


193 


Like  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  Washington  Irving,  who  were 


also  weakly  boys,  he  grew  up  in  close  contact  with  nature, 
and  learned  to  love  hunting  and  fishing  and  other  healthful 
outdoor  sports.  As  was  the  custom  in  New  England,  his 
mother  and  his  older  sisters  taught  him  to  read  at  home. 
The  little  boy  loved 
to  read  as  wrell  as  to 
play,  and  his  quick 
memory  enabled  him 
to  retain  readily 
whatever  he  read. 

Probably  his 
father's  example 
guided  him  in  this, 
for  Mr.  Webster  had 
a  musical  voice  and 
was  a  fine  reader. 
Often  during  the  long 
winter  evenings  he 
would  gather  his  fam- 
ily around  the  fire- 
place and  read  aloud 
to  them,  usually  from 
the  Bible.  Daniel 
Webster  in  after 
years,  in  speaking  of 
this  custom  of  his  father's,  said,  "if  there  be  anything  in  my 
style  or  thoughts  worthy  to  be  commended,  the  credit  is  due 
to  my  parents  for  instilling  into  my  mind  an  early  love  for 
the  Scriptures."  So,  following  his  father's  example,  Daniel 
became  a  good  reader  himself.  Often  the  men  who  came  to 
his  father's  mill  would  hitch  their  horses  and  say,  "Let's 


Daniel  Webster,  reading 


194  DANIEL   WEBSTER 

go  in  and  hear  little  Dan  read."  Or  the  farmers  on  their  way 
to  market  would  stop  at  Captain  Webster's  for  the  noon  hour, 
and  while  they  rested  under  the  shade  of  the  trees,  the  little 
boy  would  read  to  them  some  of  the  fine  passages  from  the 
Bible. 

Webster  said  of  his  life  at  this  time,  "  I  read  what  I 
could  get  to  read,  went  to  school  wThen  I  could,  and  when 
not  at  school  was  a  farmer's  youngest  boy,  not  good  for 
much,  for  want  of  health  and  strength,  but  expected  to  do 
something." 

Daniel's  brother,  Ezekiel,  was  two  years  older,  and  the 
boys  were  very  fond  of  each  other.  One  day  Mr.  Webster, 
returning  after  an  absence  from  home,  asked  Ezekiel  what 
he  had  been  doing.  "Nothing,  sir,"  the  boy  replied.  "Well, 
Daniel,  what  have  you  been  doing?"  "Helping  Zeke,  sir," 
was  the  quick  reply. 

Another  interesting  story  is  told  of  Webster's  boyhood 
days.  In  those  days  some  famous  speech  or  document 
like  the  Constitution  or  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  sometimes  printed  on  a  handkerchief.  One  day  at  the 
little  village  store  at  Salisbury,  Daniel  saw  one  of  these 
handkerchiefs  with  the  Constitution  printed  on  it.  Eagerly 
saving  his  pennies,  he  at  last  became  its  proud  purchaser, 
and  from  it  learned  most  of  the  great  document,  of  which, 
in  his  maturer  years,  he  was  to  be  the  ablest  defender. 

When  Daniel  was  fourteen  years  old,  his  parents  decided 
to  send  him  away  to  school.  Although  they  were  poor,  their 
ambition  was  to  give  him  a  college  education.  So  in  the  spring 
of  1796  he  entered  Phillips  Academy  at  Exeter,  New  Hamp- 
shire. The  boy  had  never  before  been  so  far  away  from 
home  or  in  such  close  contact  with  boys  from  more  prosperous 
families.     They  made  fun  of  him  and  of  his  clothes,  little 


EDUCATION  195 

realizing  that  he  would  become  the  greatest  of  them  all. 
This  thoughtless  ridicule  made  him  so  sensitive  that  when 
his  turn  came  to  speak  before  the  school  he  was  too  timid 
and  bashful  to  do  so.  Boys  of  to-day  will  sympathize  with 
him  in  his  experience,  of  which  he  tells  us:  "  Many  a  piece 
did  I  commit  to  memory  and  rehearse  in  my  room  over  and 
over  again.  But  when  the  day  came,  wThen  the  school 
collected,  when  my  name  was  called  and  I  saw  all  eyes 
turned  upon  my  seat,  I  could  not  raise  myself  from  it." 
But  he  did  the  rest  of  his  school  duties  so  well  that  he  was 
soon  at  the  head  of  his  class,  and  the  other  boys  came  to 
respect  him  for  his  ability. 

Mr.  Webster  was  unable  to  keep  his  son  long  at  Exeter,  so 
Daniel  finished  his  college  preparations  under  Dr.  Wood,  a 
clergyman  in  a  village  near  the  Webster  home.  Here  he  did 
not  apply  himself  so  closely  to  his  books  as  he  had  at  the 
Academy,  so  that  often  his  master  had  to  chide  him  for  spend- 
ing too  much  time  in  hunting  and  fishing.  One  day,  as  a 
punishment,  Dr.  Woods  gave  the  boy  one  hundred  lines  of 
Virgil  to  memorize.  When  the  time  came  for  his  recitation, 
Daniel  had  learned  not  only  the  task  set  for  him  but  also  four 
hundred  lines  more.  This  pleased  the  master  so  much  that 
he  said,  "  Well,  Dan,  you  may  have  the  rest  of  the  day  for 
pigeon-shooting." 

In  the  fall  of  1797,  Webster  finished  his  preparation  and 
entered  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire. 
Here  he  read  widely  and  thoughtfully,  although  he  did  not 
take  high  rank  in  scholarship.  Here  also  he  overcame  his 
boyish  timidity,  and  became  one  of  the  best  speakers  and 
debaters  in  the  college.  He  was  graduated  in  1801  and  began 
the  study  of  law.  But  his  brother  Ezekiel,  for  whom  Daniel 
always  had  the  deepest  affection,  wished  also  to  have  a  college 


196  DANIEL   WEBSTER 

education.  Ezekiel  had  done  much  to  help  him  through 
college,  and  he  now  saw  an  opportunity  to  repay  this  self- 
sacrifice.  So  Daniel  applied  for  and  was  appointed  principal 
of  the  Academy  at  Fryeburg,  Maine.  He  was  to  have  three 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  for  his  year's  work,  and  with  a  part 
of  this  money  he  could  help  pay  his  brother's  expenses. 

He  was  a  successful  teacher,  and  had  a  strong  influence  over 
his  pupils.  Some  of  them  in  old  age  used  to  tell  of  the  impres- 
sive manner  in  which  Webster  offered  the  morning  and  eve- 
ning prayers  with  which  he  always  opened  and  closed  his 
school.  Out  of  school  hours,  he  used  to  earn  money  by  copy- 
ing deeds,  and  gave  every  dollar  he  could  spare  to  his  loyal 
brother  in  college. 

After  Ezekiel  had  finished  at  Dartmouth,  he  went  to  Boston, 
where  he  taught  a  private  school.  Here  Daniel  soon  joined 
him  and  aided  in  the  school,  at  the  same  time  pursuing  his 
law  studies.  Daniel  was  fortunate  at  this  time  in  obtaining 
a  clerkship  in  the  office  of  Christopher  Gore,  a  famous  lawyer 
of  Boston,  from  whom  Gore  Hall  in  the  Harvard  Law  School 
was  afterwards  named.  Gore's  aid  to  Webster  was  of  great 
value,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  young  man  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Bos- 
cawen,  a  little  town  near  his  home,  but  two  years  later 
removed  to  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Here  he  soon 
became  a  leader  in  the  social  and  professional  life  of  the  city. 

In  1 81 2  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  member  from  New 
Hampshire,  and  from  this  time  was  a  prominent  figure  in  our 
national  life. 

The  generation  of  statesmen  who  had  won  our  independence 
and  established  a  new  nation  were  passing  away,  and  a  new 
race  of  leaders  were  taking  their  places  in  the  halls  of  Congress. 

Among  these  young  men  of  vigorous  intellect  and  of  strong 


ORATOR 


IQ7 


personality  were  John  C.  Calhoun  of  South  Carolina,  and 
Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky.  With  these  men  Webster  became 
associated,  and  it  was  not  long  before  he  was  their  equal  in 
statecraft  and  in  debate.  From  the  first  he  allied  himself  with 
the  Federalist  party  and  advo- 
cated its  principles.  He  favored 
a  sound  currency,  a  moderate 
protective  tariff,  and  internal 
improvements  at  the  expense  of 
the  federal  government.  But  he 
opposed  the  War  of  181 2  as  un- 
necessary and  injurious  to  our 
commerce.  In  the  debates  on 
these  subjects  he  often  came  in 
conflict  with  Calhoun,  who  held 
opposite  views. 

In  1 816  Webster  moved  from 
Portsmouth  to  Boston,  where  he 
built  up  a  large  and  profitable  law  practice.  The  demands 
of  his  profession  compelled  him  to  retire  from  public  life  for 
a  time,  but  in  1823  he  was  again  elected  to  Congress,  and  for 
thirty  years  represented  Massachusetts  almost  continuously 
either  in  the  House  of  Representatives  or  in  the  Senate.  The 
period  durjng  which  his  greatest  service  was  given  to  his 
country's  cause  was  one  of  political  unrest.  Old  parties  were 
breaking  up  and  new  ones  being  formed,  sectional  feelings 
were  being  aroused,  and  the  question  of  slavery  was  widening 
the  breach  between  the  northern  and  the  southern  states. 
In  these  stormy  times  Daniel  Webster  stands  conspicuous  in 
his  loyalty  to  the  Union.  Indeed,  during  his  long  and  honor- 
able career,  the  thought  nearest  his  heart,  the  thought  to  which 
he  gave  his  splendid  abilities,  was  the  integrity  of  the  Union 
13 


John  C.  Calhoun 


MAK.   &  DEF. 


198 


DANIEL   WEBSTER 


and  the  sacredness  of  the  Constitution.    Love  of  country, 
reverence  for  its  institutions,  and  gratitude  for  its  blessings 
were  the  themes  on  which  he  loved  to  dwell  and  in  behalf  of 
which  he  spoke  most  eloquently. 
Not  all  of  his  speeches  were  delivered  in  the  chambers 

of  Congress.  As  our  foremost 
American  citizen,  he  was  called 
upon  to  address  great  assemblies, 
or  to  be  the  orator  at  celebrations 
of  great  events  in  our  national 
history.  Such  were  his  orations 
at  the  laying  of  the  corner  stone 
of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument, 
and  also  at  its  dedication,  and  on 
the  two-hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 
But  it  was  in  the  fulfillment  of 
his  duties  as  one  of  the  country's 
lawmakers,  when  the  gaunt  spec- 
ter of  secession  was  abroad,  when 
he  felt  that  our  very  national  existence  was  threatened,  that  he 
reached  the  highest  flights  of  oratory. 

One  of  his  speeches  deserves  more  than  passing  mention. 
The  circumstances  leading  to  its  delivery  were  these.  By  an 
act  of  Congress,  a  high  protective  tariff  had  been  placed  upon 
goods  brought  into  the  United  States  from  abroad.  This 
benefited  the  manufacturing  states  of  New  England,  but  was 
not  popular  in  the  South.  The  people  of  that  section 
wished  to  buy  their  goods  in  the  cheapest  markets,  and 
these  were  the  markets  of  Europe.  The  southern  states- 
men made  the  utmost  effort  to  have  Congress  repeal  the 
tariff  law,  which  they  claimed  Congress  had  no  right  to 


Bunker  Hill  Monument 


SENATOR  199 

pass  in  the  first  place.  Failing  in  this,  some  of  the  states 
even  threatened  to  secede.  The  leaders  in  this  disloyal 
movement  were  Calhoun  and  Hayne,  the  Senators  from 
South  Carolina.  Their  arguments  were  based  upon  the 
doctrine  of  state  rights;  they  claimed  that  a  state  might, 
under  certain  circumstances,  decide  that  a  law  of  the  federal 
government  was  unconstitutional;  that  the  state  could  then 
nullify  it,  or  refuse  to  allow  its  enforcement  within  bound- 
aries of  the  state;  and  also  that  a  state  might  secede,  or 
withdraw  from  the  Union,  whenever  it  liked. 

Against  this  dangerous  doctrine  Webster  opposed  all  the 
force  of  his  powerful  intellect.  He  held  that  the  Constitu- 
tion had  established  a  union  of  the  states,  —  not  a  partnership 
to  be  dissolved  at  will,  —  and  that  no  state  could  refuse  to 
obey  the  laws  of  the  nation. 

The  debates  on  the  subject  continued  for  a  long  time  and 
became  increasingly  bitter.  Finally  they  culminated  in  an 
attack  by  Mr.  Hayne  upon  Massachusetts  and  upon  Mr. 
Webster  personally.  It  was  a  masterly  speech,  and  the  friends 
of  the  Union  feared  that  it  was  unanswerable.  Mrs.  Webster 
had  heard  the  speech,  and  when  her  husband  returned  from 
the  Senate,  she  anxiously  asked  him  if  he  could  answer  the 
arguments.  With  almost  a  roar,  Mr.  Webster  replied,  "An- 
swer him!  I'll  grind  him  to  powder."  He  had  only  the  one 
night  in  which  to  prepare  his  answer,  but,  in  another  sense, 
he  was  fully  prepared.  The  Constitution  had  been  his  life 
study;  he  understood  his  subject  thoroughly,  and  had  often 
used  similar  arguments  elsewhere. 

•  The  next  day,  as  he  was  entering  the  Senate  chamber,  a 
friend  said  to  him,  "It  is  a  critical  moment.  It  is  time,  it 
is  high  time,  that  the  people  of  this  country  shall  know  what 
this  Constitution  is." 


200  DANIEL    WEBSTER 

"Then,"  answered  Webster,  "by  the  blessing  of  Heaven 
they  shall  learn,  this  day,  before  the  sun  goes  down,  what  I 
understand  it  to  be." 

On  the  eventful  day,  the  galleries,  floors,  and  even  the  stair- 
ways of  the  Senate  chamber .  were  crowded  with  people. 
Even  the  House  of  Representatives  was  deserted  while  its 
members  eagerly  came  to  hear  the  great  orator.  For  hours, 
Mr.  Webster  held  his  audience  spellbound.  With  all  the 
power  of  his  eloquence,  with  all  the  magnetism  of  his  personal 
presence,  he  appealed  to  the  loyalty  of  his  hearers.  His  voice, 
now  soft  and  musical,  now  deep  and  solemn,  thrilled  with  the 
majesty  of  his  theme.  He  closed  his  oration  with  these 
sublime  words: 

"When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last 
time  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the 
broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union; 
on  states  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a  land  rent 
with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood! 

"Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance  rather  behold 
the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known  and  honored 
throughout  the  earth,  still  high  advanced,  its  arms  and  tro- 
phies streaming  in  their  original  luster,  not  a  stripe  erased  or 
polluted,  not  a  single  star  obscured,  bearing  for  its  motto  no 
such  miserable  interrogatory  as  '  What  is  all  this  worth  ? '  nor 
those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly, '  Liberty  first  and  Union 
afterwards';  but  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of 
living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds  as  they  float  over  the 
sea  and  over  the  land,  and  in  every  wind  under  the  whole 
heavens,  that  other  sentiment,  dear  to  every  American  heart  — 
Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable!" 

The  effect  of  this  splendid  speech  was  wonderful.  It 
voiced  the  loyalty  of  the  North.     It  was  read  everywhere.     It 


SENATOR 


20I 


was  memorized  and  spoken  by  thousands  of  boys  in  northern 
schoolhouses.  It  was  understood  by  the  humblest  voters. 
Without  doubt  this  and  other  great  speeches  of  Webster 
contributed  largely  to  the  moral  strength  and  courage  of  the 
"boys  in  blue"  during  the  long  years  of  the  Civil  War. 

Webster  had  not  only  the  mighty  intellect  and  the  musical 
voice  of  a  great  orator,  but  he  had 
also  an  impressive  physical  pres- 
ence. He  was,  in  youth,  tall  and 
slender,  with  dark  eyes  which 
seemed  fairly  to  burn  beneath  the 
heavy  brows;  Carlyle  called  them 
"dull  anthracite  furnaces  needing 
only  to  be  blown."  In  his  ma- 
turer  years  his  stately  form  filled 
out;  he  was  nearly  six  feet  tall. 
His  head  was  massive,  and  a 
broad,  deep  brow  indicated  the 
mental  strength  beneath.  A 
sailor  who  saw  him  walking  in  the 
streets  of  Liverpool,  England,  said, 
Wendell  Phillips  tells  the  story  of  his  attending  a  Whig  con- 
vention at  a  time  when  that  party  seemed  about  to  disband. 
Rising  in  his  seat,  Webster  said,  "  Gentlemen,  I  am  a  WThig, 
a  constitutional  Whig,  a  Massachusetts  Whig,  a  Faneuil  Hall 
Whig,  and  if  you  break  up  the  Whig  party,  where,  sirs,  am  I 
to  go?"  "And,"  says  Phillips,  "we  all  held  our  breath  won- 
dering where  he  could  go.  If  he  had  been  five  feet  three  we 
should  have  said,  'who  cares  where  you  go.'" 

Like  Clay,  Webster  had  a  worthy  ambition  to  serve  his 
country  in  the  highest  office  within  the  gift  of  the  people. 
Twice  the  nomination  of  his  party  for  President  seemed  within 


Daniel  Webster 


"There  goes  a  king." 


202  DANIEL   WEBSTER 

his  grasp,  and  twice  it  escaped  him  only  to  be  given  to  men 
whose  chief  claim  for  distinction  was  their  military  renown. 
The  cause  of  his  defeat  the  second  time  was  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  position  he  took  in  supporting  the  Compromise  of  1850. 

One  of  the  provisions  of  that  famous  bill  was  with  refer- 
ence to  the  return  of  slaves  who  had  escaped  from  their 
owners.  This  unjust  measure  provided  that  an  escaped 
negro  could  be  arrested  and,  without  a  jury  trial  or  an  oppor- 
tunity to  testify  in  his  own  behalf,  could  be  returned  to  the 
person  who  claimed  to  be  his  owner.  Sometimes,  in  its 
operation,  even  free  negroes  were  kidnaped  and  carried  back 
to  slavery.  This  fugitive  slave  law  was  most  unpopular  in 
the  North,  and  many  people  secretly  aided  runaway  slaves  in 
escaping  to  Canada. 

When  Webster  spoke  in  favor  of  this  law  he  deeply  offended 
his  northern  supporters.  They  felt  that  he  had  deserted  the 
cause  and  the  ideals  of  a  lifetime.  But  we  can  see  more 
clearly  than  our  fathers  did  that  the  judgment  then  passed 
upon  him  was  unjust;  that  his  course  at  that  time,  as  well  as 
at  all  others,  was  guided  by  his  love  for  the  Union;  that  his 
object  was  peace  and  the  burying  of  all  sectional  antagonism 
between  the  North  and  the  South.  He  saw  clearly  that  this 
attitude  would  alienate  his  friends,  but  he  felt  his  duty  to  his 
country  was  greater  than  his  desire  to  be  President.  His 
political  career  soon  ended,  and  he  retired  to  his  home  at 
Marshfield,  Massachusetts,  a  broken  old  man. 

At  Marshfield,  Webster  hoped  to  find  rest  and  comfort  in 
his  old  age.  His  home  was  a  beautiful  estate  with  its  lawns 
sloping  gently  to  the  sea.  Here  for  years,  he  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  come  when  wearied  with  affairs  of  state,  and  here 
he  had  lived  the  simple  life  of  a  farmer  among  his  neighbors 
and  friends. 


COMPROMISE   OF    1850  203 

He  retained  his  boyhood  love  for  nature,  and  would  often 
be  found  wading  the  trout  brooks  in  the  vicinity,  or  sailing  on 
the  bay  in  front  of  his  house.  He  was  fond  of  his  cattle,  and 
prided  himself  on  having  the  finest  oxen  in  the  state. 

In  May,  1852,  while  driving,  he  was  thrown  from  his 
carriage  and  severely  injured.  The  wear  and  tear  of  half 
a  century  of  public  life  left  him  no  reserve  of  strength,  and 
he  failed  rapidly.  During  his  last  illness,  he  suffered  greatly 
from  sleeplessness.  He  had  a  little  boat  on  the  pond  back 
of  his  house,  and  by  his  orders  an  American  flag  was  run  up 
to  the  masthead  and  lighted  at  night  by  a  ship  lantern,  so 
that  his  sleepless  hours  were  comforted  by  the  sight  of  the 
flag  he  loved.  Feeling  that  his  earthly  career  was  soon  to 
be  finished,  he  awaited  the  end  with  Christian  courage. 
Always  a  believer  in  God  and  in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  he 
desired  to  leave  some  enduring  record  of  his  faith.  Accord- 
ingly, he  prepared  an  inscription  for  his  monument  which 
reads,  in  part: 

"The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  cannot  be  a  merely  human 
production.  This  belief  enters  into  the  very  depth  of  my 
conscience.     The  whole  history  of  man  proves  it. 

"  Dan'l  Webster." 

On  the  evening  of  the  23rd  of  October,  1852,  he  died, 
mourned  by  a  whole  nation.  In  his  lifetime  he  had  been 
very  close  to  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  they  came  from  far 
and  near  to  pay  their  last  tribute  of  respect  to  his  memory. 
One  old  man,  bending  over  the  casket,  said  pathetically, 
"The  world  without  you,  Daniel  Webster,  will  be  lonesome." 

In  thinking  of  Daniel  Webster,  always  remember  his 
manliness  and  courtesy.  In  a  time  when  political  antago- 
nisms were  bitter,  when  personal  feeling  ran  high,  Webster 
never  forgot  that  he  was  a  gentleman.     Though  attacked, 


204  DANIEL   WEBSTER 

and  sometimes  insulted  by  the  press  or  by  political  opponents, 
he  replied,  if  at  all,  with  moderation.  In  the  arrangement  of 
his  speeches  for  publication,  he  directed  the  omission  of  all 
passages  in  which  he  had  spoken  severely  of  others,  even  when 
those  references  were  justly  provoked  by  unfair  attacks  on 
his  integrity  as  a  man.  He  was  indeed  a  great  American, 
and  the  strength  of  our  united  nation  is  due  to-day,  in  a 
large  measure,  to  his  eloquent  defense  of  the  Constitution 
and  to  his  patriotic  devotion  to  his  country. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Webster's  rank  as  an  orator.  Webster's  early 
home;  New  England  ancestry;  father  and  mother.  His  school  and 
college  days;  love  for  his  brother  Ezekiel.  Public  career,  as  member 
of  Congress  and  United  States  Senator.  The  Webster-Hayne  debate; 
Webster  as  an  orator;  personal  appearance.  His  attitude  on  the  com- 
promise measures  of  1850;  loss  of  friends;  return  to  private  life;  home 
at  Marshfield;  death.    Traits  of  character. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Describe  Daniel  Webster's  parents.  II.  How 
did  Daniel  acquire  his  love  for  reading?  for  outdoor  sports?  III.  Tell 
the  story  of  Daniel's  school  days.  IV.  Who  were  the  leading  men  in 
Congress  during  Webster's  time?  V.  What  were  Webster's  political 
views?  VI.  Name  some  of  Webster's  great  speeches.  VII.  Describe 
the  events  leading  up  to  his  "Reply  to  Hayne."  VIII.  Describe  Web- 
ster's personal  appearance.  IX.  What  is  there  in  his  character  that  you 
admire?  X.  How  does  Webster  rank  as  an  orator?  XI.  What  was  his 
influence  upon  the  political  life  of  the  United  States? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Franklin  (Salisbury),  and  Hanover,  N.  H.; 
Portsmouth;  Boston;  Marshfield  (p.  60). 

Memory  Selection.  —  Last  paragraph  of  the  "Reply  to  Hayne." 

Collateral  Reading 
Biography.  —  Baldwin,    "Four    Great    Americans,"    pp.    125-186; 
Brooks,  "Century  Book  of  Famous  Americans,"  pp.  37-48;  Hart  and 
Chapman,  "How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived,"  pp.  28-31,  341-344. 


INVENTIONS  AND  INVENTORS 

After  the  Revolutionary  War  was  over  and  the  new  gov- 
ernment was  established,  men  began  to  give  more  attention 
to  industrial  questions.  The  country  was  in  debt,  and  the 
taxes  were  necessarily  heavy.  Men  tried  to  devise  methods 
by  which  labor  could  be  lightened  and  at  the  same  time 
could  bring  greater  profits.  It  is  often  called  the  period  of 
inventions.  Certainly  some  very  important  inventions  were 
made  in  the  last  years  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  first  part  of 
the  nineteenth  centuries.  Such  inventions  are  quite  as  im- 
portant events  in  history  as  wars  and  elections,  for  in- 
ventions modify  life  and  work,  and  history  is  really  a 
record  of  the  life  and  the  work  of  the  people  of  a  nation. 

Eli  Whitney  and  the  Cotton  Gin 

Eli  Whitney  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1765,  so  he 
was  ten  years  old  when  the  battle  of  Lexington  was  fought. 
His  father  was  a  small  farmer.  He  also  had  a  workshop,  and 
in  the  winter  made  wheels  and  chairs,  and  did  odd  jobs  of 
mending  tools  for  his  neighbors.  The  young  boy  liked  to 
play  in  the  shop.  He  not  only  learned  readily  the  use  of 
tools,  but  showed  unusual  mechanical  genius. 

Once  when  Eli  was  twelve  years  old,  his  father  was  away 
from  home  for  two  or  three  days,  during  which  time  Eli  made 
a  fiddle.  It  was  examined  by  many  people,  who  pronounced 
it  an  excellent  piece  of  work  for  a  boy.     The  story  is  also 

told  that  about  this  time  he  took  his  father's  watch  to  pieces 

205 


2o6  ELI   WHITNEY 

and  put  it  together  again.  He  understood  its  mechanism  so 
well  that  it  kept  as  good  time  afterward  as  before,  and  his 
father  knew  nothing  about  it  until  some  years  later,  when  the 
boy  told  what  he  had  done. 

At  thirteen,  Eli  made  some  good  knives.  He  was  then 
repeatedly  called  upon  by  the  family  and  by  the  neighbors  to 
do  all  sorts  of  repairing  of  furniture,  kitchen  utensils,  and 
farm  tools.  During  the  Revolutionary  War,  nails  were 
very  scarce.  When  fifteen  years  old,  Eli  told  his  father 
that  he  would  make  nails  if  the  iron  could  be  furnished. 
He  turned  out  good  nails  made  by  hand,  which  were  in 
such  demand  that  he  was  obliged  to  employ  extra  help. 
When  the  war  was  over,  making  nails  was  no  longer  profit- 
able, so  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  making  of  hat  pins. 
The  ladies  were  delighted,  for  his  hat  pins  were  better  and 
cheaper  than  those  in  common  use. 

He  saved  the  money  earned  in  these  ways  to  go  to  college. 
In  the  fall  of  1789  he  entered  Yale,  and  was  graduated  in 
1792,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven.  He  went  to  the  South  to 
teach,  and  soon  became  acquainted  with  the  widow  of  Gen- 
eral Nathanael  Greene,  who  was  living  at  Mulberry  Grove, 
near  Savannah.  Whitney  was  disappointed  in  his  teaching 
venture,  and  Mrs.  Greene  offered  him  a  home  until  he  should 
find  something  to  do.  He  made  himself  very  useful  in  help- 
ing the  children  with  their  lessons,  and  in  making  and  mend- 
ing many  things  with  great  ingenuity. 

From  the  time  of  the  earliest  settlements  in  the  South,  cot- 
ton had  been  raised.  Recent  inventions  in  England  had  in- 
creased the  rapidity  of  spinning  and  weaving,  and  all  the 
cotton  raised  found  ready  market,  but  the  cost  of  cotton  cloth 
was  as  great  as  that  of  silk  cloth  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
separating  the  cotton  seed  from  the  fiber.     The  fluffy  white 


THE   COTTON   GIN 


207 


ball  containing  the  cotton  is  called  a  boll,  and  sprinkled 
through  it  are  the  seeds  of  the  cotton.  Negro  women  were 
usually  employed  for  removing  these  seeds,  and  the  average 
day's  work  was  the  cleaning  of  one  pound  of  cotton.  The 
most  skillful  workman 
could  clean  no  more  than 
four  or  five  pounds  in  a 
day,  or  a  bale  in  three 
months. 

Some  guests  at  Mrs. 
Greene's  were  discussing 
the  question,  when  Mrs. 
Greene  suggested  that 
Mr.  Whitney  might  be 
able  to  find  some  easier 
and  quicker  way  of  re- 
moving the  seeds;  "for," 
said  she,  "he  can  make 
anything."  He  was 
pleased  with  the  idea, 
and  eagerly  set  to  work. 
He  first  made  a  careful 
study  of  the  cotton  boll, 
noting  the  number,  size, 
and  quality  of  the  seeds. 
He  then  worked  out  the 
general  idea  of  the  cotton 
gin,  which  he  first  made 
on  a  small  scale. 

He  needed  wire,  but  the  kind  he  wanted  could  not  be 
purchased  in  Savannah.  Travel  was  too  slow  to  send  North,  so 
he  drew  his  own  wire.     Necessary  tools  also  had  to  be  made. 


Eli  Whitney  at  Work 


208 


ELI   WHITNEY 


But  he  kept  steadily  at  work  and  overcame  all  such  obstacles. 
He  was  encouraged  and  helped  by  a  neighbor,  Mr.  Miller, 
who  was  also  a  Yale  graduate. 

Late  in  the  winter  of  1793  the  model  was  completed;  it 
was  tested  and  worked  well.  The  machine  consisted  of 
two  cylinders  four  feet  long  mounted  on  a  strong  frame. 
Around  one   of  these   cylinders,   which  was  five  inches  in 

diameter,  were  saws  set 
one  half  inch  apart,  ris- 
ing two  inches  from  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder. 
As  this  cylinder  revolved, 
the  saws  passed  through 
corresponding  slits  too 
small  for  the  seeds.  The 
other  cylinder  had  rows 
of  stiff  brushes.  The  cot- 
ton was  put  into  a  hopper 
where  it  was  met  by  the 
saw-teeth  on  the  revolv- 
ing cylinder  and  torn  from 
the  seeds,  then  swept  from 
the  teeth  into  a  receptacle 
by  the  stiff  brushes. 
Whitney  and  his  friend 
Miller  formed  a  partnership  to  get  a  patent,  and  to  manu- 
facture and  sell  the  machines.  In  great  excitement  men  came 
to  see  the  machine,  but  if  it  was  to  be  patented  it  must  not 
be  shown.  Some  one  broke  into  the  workshop  and  stole  one 
of  the  models.  Then  imitations  appeared  in  various  places, 
which  caused  Whitney  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  In  fact,  he 
never  received  just  reward  for  his  great  invention. 


The  Cotton  Gin 
(A)  Whitney's  Original  Gin;  (B)  A  Later  Form 


THE    COTTON    GIN  200, 

The  cotton  gin  was  a  great  gift  to  the  southern  states.  It 
could  be  operated  by  one  man  and  clean  in  one  day  1000 
pounds  of  cotton.  Later,  by  using  horse  power,  5000  or 
6000  pounds  could  be  cleaned  in  one  day.  That  is,  it  multi- 
plied a  man's  labor  a  thousandfold.  This  led  every  one  to 
raise  cotton.  Much  of  the  work  could  be  done  by  women  and 
children  and  unskilled  slave  labor.  Immediately,  there  was 
a  great  increase  in  the  demand  for  slaves  in  all  the  cotton 
states. 

In  a  way,  we  can  trace  a  direct  connection  between  the 
invention  of  the  cotton  gin  and  the  Civil  War.  The  cotton 
gin  on  the  other  hand  brought  great  prosperity,  not  only  to 
the  South  but  to  the  whole  United  States.  It  made  cotton 
cloth  cheaper,  and  in  that  way  all  poor  people  were  benefited. 

Eli  Whitney  never  personally  profited  by  the  invention, 
but  later  he  made  a  large  fortune  in  the  manufacture  of 
firearms.  The  best  muskets  used  in  the  War  of  1812  came 
from  Whitney's  manufacturing  establishment  at  New  Haven, 
Connecticut.  He  died  in  that  city  in  January,  1825,  honored 
not  only  by  all  who  knew  him  but  by  the  country  at  large. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Boyish  ingenuity.  Education;  life  in  the  South. 
Limits  to  profitable  cotton  raising.  The  cotton  gin.  The  importance 
of  the  gin.    Whitney  did  not  profit  by  the  invention. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Describe  cotton  growing,  picking,  and  clean- 
ing.   II.  Describe  in  your  own  words  the  machine  and  how  it  worked. 

Elias  Howe 

Methods  of  sewing  are  as  old  as  clothing  itself.  What- 
ever the  skin  or  fabric  used,  it  had  to  be  shaped  and  sewed  in 
order  to  cover  the  body.  To  us  of  the  twentieth  century,  it 
seems  strange  that  for  thousands  of  years  no  one  found  a  way 
easier  than  sewing  by  hand;  for  the  sewing  machine  was 


2IO  ELIAS   HOWE 

not  used  till  about  1850.  There  are  men  living  to-day  who 
knew  the  inventor,  Elias  Howe. 

The  first  sewing  was  doubtless  done  by  drawing  a  string 
or  fibrous  thread  through  holes  punched  in  the  fabric.  The 
next  step  required  a  needle.  This  was  first  made  of  bone,  and 
later  of  ivory.  It  was  not  until  comparatively  modern  times 
that  needles  were  made  of  steel.  But  even  when  a  fine  sharp 
needle  and  smooth  thread  had  been  found,  the  labor  of 
making  garments  was  very  hard.  Hood's  poem  was  true  of 
many  a  woman. 

"With  fingers  weary  and  worn, 
With  eyelids  heavy  and  red, 
A  woman  sits  in  unwomanly  rags, 
Plying  her  needle  and  thread  — 
Stitch!  Stitch!  Stitch! 
In  poverty,  hunger,  and  dirt." 

Unsuccessful  efforts  had  been  made  before  that  of  Howe,  but 
the  machines  we  use  to-day  are  practically  all  outgrowths  of 
his  invention. 

Elias  Howe  was  born  in  Spencer,  Massachusetts,  in  1819. 
He  was  one  of  eight  children,  all  of  whom  had  to  go  to  work 
when  quite  young.  He  was  never  very  strong,  and  that  may 
explain  why  he  was  always  trying  to  find  an  easier  way  to  do 
his  work  than  to  obey  orders.  Such  a  disposition,  however, 
has  led  to  other  great  inventions. 

He  married  at  twenty-one,  and  found  it  very  difficult  to  pro- 
vide for  his  family  on  a  dollar  and  a  half  a  day.  His  young  wife 
early  took  in  sewing  to  help  with  the  expenses.  In  the 
evening,  after  the  children  were  put  to  bed,  Howe  used  to 
lie  on  the  couch,  exhausted  from  his  own  day's  work,  and 
watch  his  wife  sew.  It  grieved  him,  for  he  knew  that  her 
day,  too,  had  been  hard.    It  was  then  that  his  mind  began 


THE    SEWING   MACHINE 


211 


to  work  out  a  plan  for  making  sewing  easier.  In  less  than 
a  year  he  had  made  a  rude  machine  in  which  the  needle 
was  made  to  work  in  imitation  of  hand  sewing.  He  saw 
that  the  method  was  clumsy,  and  decided  that  two  threads 
must  be  run  together.  He  then  experimented  with  two 
needles,  but  later  devised  a  shuttle  to  carry  the  lower 
thread,  and  a  needle  with  the  eye  in  the  point  to  carry  the 
upper  thread.  The  first 
model  on  this  plan  was 
patented  in  1845. 

The  year  and  a  half 
of  experimenting  had 
brought  with  it  great 
sacrifice  and  suffering. 
His  wages  were  small. 
He  had  three  children. 
His  health  was  poor. 
The  only  time  he  could 
spare  was  at  night  after 
his  day's  work  was  over. 
Every  bit  of  wire  or  wood 
needed  cost  money.  But  still  Elias  Howe  did  not  give  up. 
Finally  a  friend  named  Fisher,  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
lent  him  $500  and  gave  him  the  use  of  his  shop.  This  was 
a  great  favor,  and  Howe's  final  success  was  largely  due  to 
this  generosity. 

Like  so  many  other  inventors,  Howe  suffered  through  the 
ignorance  of  the  very  people  who  would  be  benefited  by  the 
invention.  He  first  offered  it  to  the  tailors  of  Boston.  They 
would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  machine,  and  declared  it 
would  ruin  their  business.  For  over  a  year,  he  and  Mr. 
Fisher  tried  to  get  people  to  use  it,  but  all  kinds  of  workmen 


Howe's  First  Sewing  Machine 


212  ELIAS   HOWE 

stubbornly  refused.  Finally,  Howe  went  to  England,  and  for 
eight  months  worked  for  an  umbrella  maker,  who  proved 
such  a  hard  master  that  Howe  decided  to  return  home.  He 
was  obliged  to  pawn  the  model  of  his  sewing  machine  to 
get  money  to  pay  his  passage,  and  he  reached  America 
with  only  a  dollar  in  his  pocket.  He  found  his  wife  very 
ill,  and  a  few  days  later  she  died. 

It  was  not  until  1854,  ten  years  after  he  made  his  first 
machine,  that  fortune  began  to  favor  him.  The  ignorance  of 
the  people  had  been  overcome.  The  machine  was  adapted  to 
stitching  leather  as  well  as  both  heavy  and  light  weight 
fabrics.  Many  improvements  such  as  hemmers,  tuckers, 
etc.,  were  added  both  by  himself  and  by  others.  About 
three  hundred  modifications  were  patented  between  1858 
and  1867.  After  Howe  became  prosperous,  he  helped  many 
struggling  inventors.  When  he  died,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
eight,  he  was  not  only  a  very  rich  man,  but  was  honored 
by  the  people  of  both  Europe  and  America. 

The  sewing  machine  has  been  a  great  benefit  to  society. 
It  has  been  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  uses.  It  is  easier  and 
quicker  to  operate  a  machine  than  to  sew  by  hand.  This 
has  so  multiplied  the  output  that  whatever  has  been  made  by 
machine  is  much  cheaper.  So  not  only  the  immediate  work- 
men, but  every  man,  woman,  and  child  has  been  benefited  by 
the  sewing  machines. 

Collateral  Reading 
Biography.  —  Mowry,     "American     Inventions     and     Inventors," 
pp.    148-152;    Hubert,    "Inventors,"    pp.    69-99,    99-III5    Williams, 
"Some  Successful  Americans,"  pp.  147-153. 


COMMERCE  AND  TRAVEL 

Robert  Fulton  and  the  Steamboat 

In  the  early  days,  travel  either  by  land  or  by  water  was  a 
slow  process.  A  journey  of  days  or  weeks  on  foot  was  not 
unusual.  The  only  other  ways  of  land  travel  were  by  horse- 
back or  by  stagecoach.  Horses  on  the  roads  in  this  new 
country  could  rarely  make  forty  miles  a  day.  The  easier 
•mode  of  travel,  of  course,  was  by  water,  and  for  that  reason 
the  new  settlements  were  planted  on  the  coast  or  on  rivers. 
Canoes,  made  of  light  frames  covered  with  bark  or  skins, 
were  used  on  the  small  streams  for  short  distances.  Large 
boats  were  dependent  on  the  wind.  The  early  explorers 
had  many  sad  experiences  in  being  windbound.  Drake's 
ship  was  once  becalmed  just  off  the  harbor  of  Lima,  and 
the  ships  of  the  Jamestown  colony  were  held  in  sight  of 
England  for  several  weeks  because  of  adverse  winds. 

The  Mayflower  was  nine  weeks  in  crossing  the  Atlantic, 
and  ten  years  later  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colonists  were 
seventy-six  days  in  traveling  a  distance  that  can  to-day 
be  covered  in  six  days  or  less.  This  great  change  has  come 
about  largely  through  the  work  and  genius  of  Robert  Fulton. 

Robert  Fulton  was  born  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  same  year  that  Eli  Whitney  was  born.  His  parents 
were  genial,  hard-working  Irish  people.  When  Robert  was 
three  years  of  age,  the  father  died,  leaving  a  family  of  five 
small  children.  The  mother  was  a  thrifty  woman,  and  the 
children  were  well  cared  for  in  spite  of  her  very  small  income. 

MAK.   &   DEF.  —  14  213 


214  ROBERT   FULTON 

The  boy  went  to  school  and  learned  the  rudiments  of  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic.  He  was  not  a  brilliant  pupil,  but 
certainly  a  very  bright  boy,  interested  in  the  life  about  him. 
His  mother  went  to  the  teacher  one  day  and  suggested  that 
he  be  given  harder  tasks  and  be  required  to  study  more.  The 
teacher  replied  that  Robert  himself  had  asserted  that  his 
brain  was  so  full  of  original  ideas  that  there  was  no  room  for 
the  storage  of  the  contents  of  dusty  books.  He  was  then  ten 
years  old. 

Like  Whitney,  he  early  showed  mechanical  genius.  He 
made  his  own  lead  pencils  at  the  age  of  ten.  When  he  was 
thirteen,  that  is,  in  1778,  candles  were  so  scarce  in  his  home 
town  because  of  the  war,  that  the  village  officers  forbade- 
their  use  for  Fourth  of  July  illumination.  Young  Fulton 
invented  a  skyrocket  as  a  substitute,  saying  that  he  would 
illuminate  the  heavens  instead  of  the  streets. 

He  and  another  boy  used  to  go  fishing  on  the  Conestoga 
River,  but  they  found  " poling"  a  flat-bottomed  boat  hard 
work.  So  they  made  a  paddle  wheel  and  fastened  it  to 
the  boat.  This  was  made  to  revolve  by  turning  a  crank. 
It  worked  well,  and  they  considered  it  more  satisfactory 
than  "poling."  Such  a  paddle  wheel  was  also  applied 
years  later  in  Fulton's  first  steamboats. 

As  a  young  boy,  he  showed  skill  in  drawing.  A  neighbor, 
noticing  this,  gave  him  lessons  in  both  drawing  and  paint- 
ing. At  seventeen,  Fulton  went  to  Philadelphia,  where 
in  four  years  he  earned  enough  money  by  painting  pictures, 
not  only  to  pay  for  his  lessons  and  support  himself,  but 
also  to  buy  a  farm  for  his  mother.  The  close  application 
to  work,  however,  during  those  four  years,  had  been  bad 
for  his  health.  He  showed  symptoms  of  consumption,  so 
his  friends  advised  him  to  go  abroad  for  travel. 


THE   STEAMBOAT  215 

While  in  Philadelphia,  he  had  become  acquainted  with 
Franklin,  who  was  now  in  France.  His  old  neighbor,  the 
artist  West,  was  living  in  England.  Both  men  were  fond 
of  young  Fulton  and  urged  his  visiting  Europe;  so  in  1786, 
when  he  was  twenty-one,  he  crossed  the  Atlantic. 

Although  he  supported  himself  by  painting  pictures, 
yet  his  mind  moved  and  worked  along  lines  of  mechanical 
thought.  His  first  inventions  were  a  machine  for  saw- 
ing marble,  one  for  spinning  flax,  and  one  for  making 
rope. 

As  Fulton  was  a  boy  during  the  days  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  he  heard  much  about  military  affairs.  He  was  early 
familiar  with  all  weapons,  from  the  musket  to  the  cannon, 
and  with  methods  of  defense  and  attack.  This  probably 
explains  the  fact  that  some  of  his  early  inventions  were  to 
make  warfare  more  effective.  He  invented  cable  cutters, 
a  torpedo,  and  a  submarine  or  diving  boat.  The  torpedo 
consisted  of  an  oval  copper  case,  charged  with  gunpowder. 
The  explosion  was  regulated  by  clockwork  that  could 
spring  the  lock  and  fire  the  charge.  It  was  not  very  suc- 
cessful in  actual  use,  but  the  British  were  so  afraid  of  it 
that  they  avoided  boats  or  harbors  supplied  with  Fulton's 
torpedoes.  Fulton  gave  much  thought  to  the  construction 
of  a  vessel  that  might  move  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water,  —  a  submarine  boat.  He  found  difficulty  in  guiding 
such  a  boat  and  in  giving  it  sufficient  speed.  It  was  then 
changed  slightly,  and  was  used  as  a  diving  boat  to  carry  or 
explode  the  torpedoes. 

When  Fulton  was  a  little  over  thirty,  while  still  in  Europe, 
his  thoughts  took  another  turn,  and  he  became  interested 
in  improving  the  means  of  travel  and  transportation.  He 
worked  out  several  improvements  for  canal  boats  and  locks. 


2l6  ROBERT   FULTON 

The  steam  engine  was  already  known  and  used  in  many 
places.  Several  men  had  tried  experiments  with  boats  to  be 
propelled  by  steam  power.  A  man  by  the  name  of  Fitch  had 
come  nearer  success  than  had  any  other  man.  The  attempts 
usually  failed  because  the  engine  was  too  heavy  for  its  motive 
power.  The  first  boats  had  paddles  or  oars  on  each  side  to 
be  moved  or  worked  by  the  engine  within.  This  was  a 
heavy  and  clumsy  affair,  and  if  the  boat  did  move  there  was 
little  room  left  in  it  to  carry  anything. 

When  Robert  Fulton  became  interested  in  the  subject,  he 
introduced  the  paddle  wheel  which  in  his  boyhood  he  had 
found  so  useful  on  his  old  fishing  boat.  The  steam  engine 
was  used  to  turn  this  huge  paddle  wheel.  The  first  boat  of 
the  kind  failed,  for  the  timbers  used  in  the  boat  proper  were 
not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  heavy  machinery.  The  prin- 
ciple was  good,  so  when  the  boat  was  rebuilt  and  other 
improvements  were  added,  the  result  was  a  success. 

Fulton  had  been  fortunate  in  his  friends.  Franklin  had 
been  of  great  help  to  him,  and  had  made  it  possible  for  the 
young  American  to  meet  many  men  of  science  in  Paris. 
But  the  best  friend  proved  to  be  Robert  Livingston,  who 
before  going  to  France  had  been  interested  in  the  subject  of 
steam  navigation.  Livingston  encouraged  him  and  furnished 
money  during  the  days  of  experimentation  with  the  steam- 
boat on  the  Seine. 

Fulton  returned  to  America  in  the  fall  of  1806,  and  immedi- 
ately secured  a  well-known  shipbuilder  to  construct  under 
his  direction  the  first  successful  American  steamboat. 
This  ship,  the  Clermont,  was  finished  in  August,  1807.  Few 
men  thought  that  a  ship  could  be  moved  by  steam  power. 
When  the  Clermont  left  the  shipyard  on  the  East  River 
and  crossed  over  to  the  Jersey  shore,  a  crowd  of  curious 


THE    STEAMBOAT 


217 


people  were  ready  to  jeer  at  Fulton  and  his  "  folly,"  as  it 
was  called.  But  instead  of  jeering,  they  were  dumb  with 
surprise  when  they  saw  it  glide  swiftly  away. 

The  first  trip  of  the  Clermont  was  from  New  York  to 
Albany.  In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  Fulton  wrote  as  follows: 
"My  steamboat  voyage  to  Albany  and  back  has  turned  out 
rather  more  favor-  ^ 
able  than  I  had  cal- 
culated. The  dis- 
tance from  New 
York  to  Albany  is 
150  miles.  I  ran  it 
up  in  thirty-two 
hours  and  down  in 
thirty  hours.  The 
power  of  propelling 
boats  by  steam  is 
now  fully  proved." 
Men  who  owned  the 
old-fashioned  boats 
tried  to  wreck  the 
new  one,  and  in , 
every  way  imagi- 
nable sought  to  de-    r 

feat  its  Success.  The  Clermont,  on  its  First  Trip 

In  spite  of  all  opposition,  soon  after  the  trial  trip  it  was  run 
regularly  between  New  York  and  Albany.  Other  boats  were 
built  and  put  into  service,  so  that  a  little  later  one  left  each  city 
each  day.  Steam  ferryboats  were  soon  constructed,  and  reg- 
ular lines  were  established  between  New  York  and  Brook- 
lyn, and  across  the  Hudson  River. 

But  the  great  inventor  did  not  live  to  see  the  crossing  of 


2l8  ROBERT   FULTON 

the  Atlantic  accomplished  by  steam  power.  One  stormy 
winter's  day  he  took  a  severe  cold  superintending  some  work 
on  a  steam  frigate,  and  a  few  days  later,  February  24,  181 5, 
at  the  age  of  fifty,  he  died. 

The  first  ocean  steamer  to  cross  the  Atlantic  was  the 
Savannah,  in  1819.  From  year  to  year  improvements  were 
made,  and  by  1840  steamship  lines  were  running  regularly 
between  Europe  and  America.  To-day  the  ocean  steamships 
are  floating  palaces  with  electric  lights  and  wireless  tele- 
graph facilities.  The  average  ship  can  carry  1600  people  — 
some,  as  many  as  3000,  with  a  capacity  of  10,000  tons  of  fuel 
and  cargo  combined.  Many  of  these  ocean  liners  cross  in 
a  week,  the  record  time  being  about  five  days.  Fulton 
would  probably  not  be  surprised  at  this,  for  he  fully  be- 
lieved in  the  almost  unlimited  possibilities  of  steam  naviga- 
tion. 

In  the  fall  of  1909,  a  celebration  of  two  weeks  was  held 
in  New  York  and  in  the  towns  along  the  Hudson  River  in 
honor  of  Fulton's  invention.  In  the  naval  parade  of  this 
celebration  was  an  exact  replica  of  the  Clermont. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Boyhood  ingenuity  shown.  Went  to  Phila- 
delphia and  worked  as  an  artist.  Went  to  Europe.  Early  inventions. 
Steamboat  experiments  while  in  France.  Clermont  on  the  Hudson. 
Later  boats. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Imagine  that  you  stood  on  the  wharf  when 
the  Clermont  steamed  away;  tell  why  you  were  surprised.  II.  What 
are  some  of  the  benefits  of  steam  navigation?  III.  Why  should  a  man, 
who  spends  much  time,  hard  work,  and- money  to  make  an  invention, 
be  permitted  for  a  time  to  control  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the  thing 
invented  ? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  (p.  60)  Lancaster  (the  chief  city  of  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.),  Albany,  New  York;  the  Seine. 


THE   ERIE   CANAL 


219 


The  Erie  Canal  —  Clinton's  Great  Work 

After  the  War  of  1812  the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio 
River  was  rapidly  settled.  The  land  was  fertile,  and  much 
grain  was  raised  for  shipment  to  the  East  and  to  Europe. 
But  the  expense  of  transportation  greatly  reduced  the 
profits.  Much  produce  was  sent  down  the  Mississippi 
and  sold  in  New  Orleans  for  export.  With  the  money  thus 
gained  some  manufactured  goods  were  bought  and  carried 
back  up  the  river;  but  others  were  secured  from  New  York 
or  Philadelphia.  Goods  from  Philadelphia  were  drawn  by 
teams  along  the  Pennsylvania  turnpike  to  Pittsburg,  and 
thence  shipped  down  the  Ohio.  From  New  York  goods 
were  shipped  up  the  Hudson,  then  carted  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo  over  the  Genesee  turnpike,  and  again  shipped  on 
Lake  Erie. 

These  turnpikes  were  well-built  roads  kept  in  repair  by 
tolls  collected  along  the  route.  At  convenient  intervals  were 
road  houses,  or  inns,  where  teamsters  could  have  meals  or 
stay  over  night,  and  get  fresh  horses.  Transportation 
companies  controlled  most  of  this  work,  and  charged  from 
five  to  eight  dollars  a  hundredweight  for  carrying  freight 
between  Albany  and  Lake  Erie. 

The  time  required  for  this  trip  was  about  three  weeks,  but 
in  favorable  weather  it  might  fall  a  day  or  two  short  of 
this.  In  going  west,  the  load  consisted  of  clothing,  furni- 
ture, tools,  and  manufactured  articles  of  every  description; 
on  the  return  trip  all  sorts  of  farm  products  were  sometimes 
carried. 

For  years  men  talked  of  a  canal  along  the  route  of  the 
Genesee  turnpike,  as  transportation  by  water  had  always 
been  cheaper  than  by  land.    As  early  as  1808  Judge  Foreman, 


220 


DE   WITT   CLINTON 


one  of  the  founders  of  Syracuse,  New  York,  suggested  in  the 
state  legislature  that  a  canal  should  be  built  connecting  Lake 
Erie  and  the  Hudson  River,  and  James  Geddes  was  directed 
to  make  a  preliminary  survey  of  the  route.  Later,  the  United 
States  Congress  was  asked  to  build  such  a  canal,  and  when 
they  refused  the  people  of  New  York  were  urged  by  De  Witt 
Clinton  to  undertake  the  work.  He  was  made  chairman  of  a 
board  of  commissioners,  and  through  his  zeal  the  survey  and 
preparations  were  rapidly  pushed.  Ground  was  broken  at 
Rome,  July  4,  181 7,  and  that  fall  Clinton  was  elected  governor 
of  New  York.    The  people  who  voted  for  him  voted  for  the 


Clia'itaiujbii.t.     §/\-.JR         Painted  Post  V^-^2^/?  .fl"ji«"5il 


The  Erie  Canal 

canal,  yet  there  was  great  opposition.     He  was  ridiculed, 
and  the  canal  was  called  "  Clinton's  Big  Ditch." 

The  Erie  Canal  is  363  miles  long,  and  the  original  cost 
was  $9,000,000.  Boats  carrying  freight  are  drawn  by 
horses  or  mules,  but  one  team  can  draw  a  very  much  greater 
load  than  is  possible  with  wagons.  As  soon  as  the  canal 
was  opened  for  traffic  the  freight  charges  were  greatly 
reduced.  Before  the  canal  was  built  it  cost  Si.  10  to  carry 
a  bushel  of  wheat  from  western  New  York  to  New  York 
city,  and  the  time  taken  to  make  the  trip  was  about  three 
weeks.    After  its  completion  the  freight  rate  was  reduced 


THE   ERIE    CANAL  221 

to  forty  cents  a  bushel  and  the  time  shortened  to  less  than 
a  week.     The  rate  now  is  less  than  three  cents  a  bushel. 

Water  entered  the  Erie  Canal  October  26,  1825,  and  on 
that  day  a  flotilla  of  gayly  decked  boats  with  distinguished 
men  on  board  left  Buffalo.  The  news  was  sent  to  New  York 
in  an  hour  and  twenty  minutes  by  the  firing  of  cannon  placed 
at  intervals  along  the  route.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  know 
that  many  of  the  cannon  were  those  captured  by  Perry  in  the 
battle  of  Lake  Erie.  The  boat  of  honor  in  the  flotilla  was 
called  the  Seneca  ChieJ,  and  was  drawn  by  four  white  horses. 
Another  boat  was  known  as  Noah's  Ark;  it  had  on  board  a 
bear,  a  deer,  eagles,  various  other  birds,  and  two  Seneca 
Indians  in  native  dress.  All  along  the  way  crowds  of 
people  cheered  as  the  gay  procession  passed.  At  Albany, 
the  travelers  left  the  boats  and  went  to  the  capitol,  where 
speeches  were  made.  In  the  evening  there  was  a  grand 
illumination  in  the  city  and  at  the  water  front. 

The  next  day  the  journey  was  resumed,  and  in  twenty- four 
hours  they  had  reached  New  York.  Steamboats  were  used 
on  the  river,  and  some  of  the  canal  boats  were  towed  by  these. 
The  flotilla  was  joined  at  New  York  by  many  pleasure 
boats,  and  they  sailed  down  the  bay  to  Sandy  Hook,  where 
the  final  ceremonies  were  to  be  performed.  November  4 
was  the  wedding  day  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

On  board  the  Seneca  Chief  was  a  handsomely  painted  keg 
of  water  from  Lake  Erie.  This  Governor  Clinton  lifted  into 
full  view  of  the  multitude  of  people,  and  poured  its  contents 
into  the  Atlantic,  saying:  "This  solemnity  at  this  place,  on  the 
first  arrival  of  vessels  from  Lake  Eric,  is  intended  to  com- 
memorate the  navigable  communication  which  has  been 
accomplished  between  our  'Mediterranean'  seas  and  the 
Atlantic."     A  salute  was  fired,  and   other  demonstrations 


222 


DE   WITT   CLINTON 


tSUEhOhT. 


Ceremonies  in  New  York  Bay 

expressed  the  satisfaction  of  the  people.  The  company  then 
returned  to  New  York  city,  where  everybody  was  enjoying  a 
holiday.  A  great  street  parade  had  lasted  all  day,  and  in  the 
evening  a  banquet  was  held.  The  punch  bowl  used  at  this 
banquet  is  to-day  in  the  City  Hall  of  New  York. 

The  Erie  Canal  has  returned  to  the  people  of  the  state 
many  times  the  cost  of  its  construction  and  maintenance. 
It  turned  the  vast  trade  of  the  West  toward  New  York 
city.  All  points  along  the  line  were  benefited.  The  cities 
of  Buffalo,  Rochester,  Syracuse,  and  Albany  grew  very 
rapidly,  and  scores  of  thriving  manufacturing  towns  sprang 
up  along  the  banks  of  the  canal.  The  central  New  York 
farmers  were  furnished  a  cheap  means  of  marketing  their 
produce.  Passenger  packets  were  a  great  improvement 
over  the  old  stagecoaches  for  long  distance  travel.  Soon, 
however,  the  railroads  displaced  them,  for  travel  by  rail  was 
soon  discovered  to  be  much  quicker. 


THE  ERIE   CANAL  223 

To-day,  people  are  interested  in  a  barge  canal,  that  is, 
one  that  will  be  deep  enough  to  allow  the  lake  steamers  to 
pass  through  to  New  York,  thus  saving  much  expense  in 
trans-shipment.  Heavy  freight,  such  as  lumber  and  coal, 
is  still  carried  on  canal  boats,  but  all  perishable  products 
and  all  fast  freight  go  by  rail. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Old  route  from  the  West  to  the  seaboard.  Gene- 
see turnpike.  De  Witt  Clinton  believed  that  a  canal  should  follow  this 
route.  State  decided  to  build  it.  Completed  October,  1825.  Cere- 
mony at  Sandy  Hook.     Benefits  of  the  canal. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  paragraph  to  show  that  Ohio  and 
Indiana  were  benefited  as  much  as  New  York  by  the  Erie  Canal. 
II.  Write  a  paper  either  for  or  against  the  barge  canal. 

Map  Work.  —  Trace  the  route  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  locate  the  promi- 
nent cities  on  the  canal. 

George  Stephenson  and  the  Steam  Railway 

While  Robert  Fulton's  application  of  steam  power  to 
travel  by  water  had  been  a  great  blessing,  there  was  still 
need  for  improved  methods  of  travel  by  land.  Many  men 
believed  that  in  time  steam  would  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  question  was,  how.  Railroads  had  been  used  for 
various  purposes  for  years.  Such  railroads  consisted  simply 
of  a  track;  first  the  rails  were  of  wood,  and  later  of  iron. 
Horses  were  used  to  draw  wagons  whose  wheels  fitted  the 
rails. 

Steam  engines  had  become  useful  for  various  kinds  of 
work.  It  simply  remained  for  some  one  to  combine  these 
elements  into  some  practical  form  for  travel  and  transporta- 
tion. The  person  who  did  this  was  the  Englishman,  George 
Stephenson. 

He  was  born  in  Northumberland,  England,  in  June,  1781* 


224  GEORGE    STEPHENSON 

His  father  was  a  poor  laborer  in  a  coal  mine,  and  had  a  large 
family  of  children.  Each  boy  had  to  go  to  work  at  an 
early  age,  to  help  support  himself  and  the  younger  children. 
At  first,  George  earned  about  four  cents  a  day  watching 
cows,  then  he  hoed  turnips  for  sixteen  cents  a  day.  But 
such  work  did  not  last  long  at  a  time,  so  his  father  got 
a  place  for  George  as  engine  boy  at  the  mine.  At  fifteen,  he 
was  made  fireman.  He  liked  the  work  and  loved  his  engine 
so  well  that  he  did  not  want  to  leave  it  when  working  hours 
were  over.  The  engine  seemed  like  something  alive.  Its 
power  fascinated  the  boy.  While  still  a  fireman  he  is  said 
to  have  taken  the  engine  all  apart  and  put  it  together  again. 
He  was  often  asked  to  help  the  engineers  at  work  on  engines 
out  of  repair.  All  this  prepared  the  way  for  his  next  pro- 
motion, when  he  became  an  engineer. 

He  was  a  thrifty  boy,  saving  money  even  on  very  small 
wages.  Evenings  after  his  day's  work  was  over,  he  mended 
shoes  and  cleaned  watches.  His  school  days  had  been  very 
few,  and  during  the  years  from  seventeen  to  twenty  he  used 
every  spare  minute  for  study.  Often  he  had  a  book  open  be- 
side him  at  his  engine,  or  in  the  evening  while  mending  shoes. 
He  showed  great  readiness  in  mathematics  and  science. 

In  1814  a  prize  was  offered  for  the  invention  of  a  safety 
lamp  for  miners.  Stephenson  knew  the  life  of  miners  and 
knew  well  its  dangers.  He  began  to  experiment,  and  soon 
devised  a  good  safety  lamp  and  offered  it  to  the  committee. 
But  just  about  the  same  time,  Humphry  Davy  did  the 
same  thing,  and  the  prize  went  to  Davy.  Both  of  their 
lamps,  with  slight  changes,  are  used  in  mines  all  over  the 
world  to-day. 

For  several  years  Stephenson  had  put  much  time  and  his 
best  thought  or?  the  question  of  travel  by  steam  power  on 


THE    STEAM    RAILWAY 


225 


land.     In  1814  he  built  his  first  locomotive.     The  machinery 

of  a  steam  engine  for  drawing  cars  on  a  railroad  must  be 

arranged  as  compactly  as  possible.     The  boiler,  which  was 

erect  in  most  engines  of  the  day,   he  put  in  a  horizontal 

position.     His  most  serious  problem  was  how  to  get  up  enough 

fire  in  the  space  that  he  could  allow  for  a  fire  box.     The  first 

locomotive  he  built  could  produce  only  steam  enough  to  draw 

itself.    He  studied  this 

in  operation  and   hit 

upon     the     "steam 

blast"  idea.     That  is, 

he  used  the  escaping 

steam     to     create    a 

strong    draft    for    the 

fire.     It   is    this    that 

causes  the  puffing  of  ng      y 

an  engine  so  familiar  to  us  all.     That  engine  of  his  was  named 

"  Puffing  Billy. "    Puffing  Billy  had  a  drawing  power  of  double 

its  own  weight  at  a  speed  of  twelve  miles  an  hour.     It  is  the 

perfecting  of  this  device  that  has  made  it  possible  to  reduce 

the  height  of  smokestacks  on  locomotives. 

There  were  still  many  difficulties  in  the  way.  Stephenson 
needed  money,  which  he  did  not  have.  Before  a  railroad 
can  be  built,  the  privilege  must  be  gained  from  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  right  of  way  must  be  granted  by  the  people 
who  own  the  land  along  which  the  road  is  to  go.  All  classes 
of  people  tried  to  prevent  the  giving  of  these  privileges. 
Writers  in  papers  and  magazines  were  against  him.  One 
said,  "What  can  be  more  absurd  than  the  prospect  held 
out  of  locomotives  traveling  twice  as  fast  as  stagecoaches? 
We  should  as  soon  expect  the  people  to  suffer  themselves 
to  be   fired   off   upon   a   rocket   as    to    trust    themselves 


2  26  GEORGE    STEPHENSON 

to  the  mercy  of  such  a  machine  going  at  the  rate  of  twelve 
miles  an  hour."  Another  said,  "It  is  certainly  all  over  with 
England,  if  she  will  allow  herself  to  be  converted  into  a 
gridiron  and  covered  with  tea  kettles."  Writers  also 
declared  that  locomotives  would  kill  the  birds,  prevent 
cows  from  grazing  and  hens  from  laying,  burn  houses,  and 
cause  the  extinction  of  the  race  of  horses. 

Stephenson  was  called  a  maniac  by  some  and  a  villain  by 
others,  —  a  maniac,  because  no  sane  man  could  think  such  a 
thing  possible;  a  villain,  because  no  honest  man  would  so 
deceive  the  public. 

Much  of  the  surveying  for  the  first  road  had  to  be  done  at 
night,  because  respectable  people,  as  well  as  others,  would 
attack  the  men  and  prevent  their  working.  The  Stockton  and 
Darlington  Company  was  the  first  organized,  and  Stephenson 
was  made  engineer  of  construction.  It  was  slow  work,  for  the 
grading,  track  laying,  and  locomotive  building  were  all  under 
this  one  man's  supervision.  He  was  three  years  at  work 
on  this  line  of  eight  miles.  One  of  the  company  became 
impatient  and  said  to  him  one  day,  "George,  you  must 
get  on  with  this  railway  faster  and  have  it  done  by  the  first 
of  January." 

"It  is  impossible,"  said  Stephenson. 

"Impossible!"  exclaimed  the  man,  "I  wish  I  could  get 
Napoleon  at  you.  He  would  tell  you  that  there  is  no  such 
word." 

"Don't  speak  to  me  of  Napoleon.  Give  me  men,  money, 
and  materials,  and  I  will  do  what  Napoleon  couldn't  do  — 
drive  a  railroad  train  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester  over 
Chat  Moss!"  replied  Stephenson. 

The  first  trip  was  made  in  September,  1825.  Stephenson 
was  in  the  engine  as  engineer.     The  train  consisted  of  six 


THE    STEAM   RAILWAY  227 

wagons  loaded  with  coal  and  flour,  three  coaches  with  the 
officers  of  the  road,  besides  carriages  having  six  hundred 
passengers  crowded  in  and  hanging  on  the  outside.  The 
speed  was  from  four  to  six  miles  an  hour.  The  next  trip 
was  made  at  fourteen  miles  an  hour.  This  first  run  of  eight 
miles  proved  to  the  public  that  steam  travel  by  land  was  a 
success. 

Just  after  this  trial  trip  a  dinner  was  given  to  the  great 
engineer,  at  which  he  made  a  speech,  saying:  "Now  I  will  tell 
you  that  I  think  you  will  live  to  see  the  day  when  railroads 
will  supersede  all  other  methods  of  conveyance  in  this  country; 
when  mail  coaches  will  go  by  railway,  and  railroads  will 
become  the  great  highway  for  the  king  and  all  his  subjects. 
The  time  will  come  when  it  will  be  cheaper  for  a  working 
man  to  travel  on  a  railway  than  to  walk  on  foot." 

George  Stephenson  for  twenty  years  sacrificed  personal 
comfort,  worked  hard,  endured  ridicule  and  bitter  charges 
from  his  enemies  to  bring  about  better  means  of  travel  on 
land.  He  succeeded,  and  when  he  declined  the  offer  of 
knighthood,  he  said  success  was  reward  enough  for  him. 

He  built  a  great  locomotive  factory  at  Newcastle,  and 
became  a  rich  man.  His  son  Robert  continued  the  work 
and  made  many  improvements  on  the  early  engines. 

America  was  not  far  behind  England  in  railroad  making. 
In  1828  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Company  began  to  build  a 
line,  and  two  years  later  passengers  were  carried.  Mean- 
while, the  people  of  New  York  were  becoming  interested  in 
this  new  method  of  travel,  and  in  1831  the  Mohawk  and 
Hudson  Railroad  began  to  carry  passengers  between  Albany 
and  Schenectady.  The  rails  were  at  first  wooden  stringers 
covered  on  the  top  with  iron  straps,  and  it  was  not  until 
some  years  later  that  all-iron  rails  were  used.     The  first 


228 


GEORGE    STEPHENSON 


locomotive  in  service  on  this  road  was  called  the  "De  Witt 
Clinton."  A  part  of  its  driving  wheel  is  in  the  possession 
of  the  Transportation  Club  in  New  York  city.  Other  roads 
were  soon  built  in  the  state;  one  extending  from  New  York 
to  Chatham  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Hudson  River,  others 
along  the  western  bank  of  this  river  in  the  direction  of 
Albany.  These  different  roads  gradually  came  under  one 
management,  and  are  now  divisions  of  the  great  New  York 
Central  system.  The  first  locomotives  were  brought  from 
England,  but  before  Jong  those  made  in  America  were  pre- 
ferred. In  1835  America  had  twenty- three  railroads  and 
over  1000  miles  of  track. 

Early  locomotives  were  usually  personified,  and  instead 

of  numbers  were  given  names,  as,  "Puffing  Billy,"  "John 

Bull,"  and  "  The  Best  Friend  of  Charleston."    They 

appear  to  have  been  chiefly  smokestack  and  a  little 

boiler.  The  most  appar- 
ent change  since  has  been 
a  great  reduction  of  the 
former  and  enlargement  of 
the  latter.  The  cab  for  the 
fireman  and  engineer  has 
been  added  in  place  of  the 
platform  on  which  they 
formerly  used  to  stand. 
At  first  the  cars  were  just  like  stagecoaches.  Year  by 
year  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  cars,  and 
on  some  lines  to-day  one  can  enjoy  all  the  luxury  and  con- 
veniences of  a  perfectly  furnished  private  house.  As  for 
speed,  little  more  can  be  asked  when  it  is  possible  to  go  from 
New  York  to  Chicago,  a  distance  of  almost  1000  miles,  in 
eighteen  hours,  or  to  San  Francisco  in  less  than  five  days. 


Early  Locomotive 


THE    STEAM   RAILWAY 


229 


Topical  Outline.  —  Boyhood  of  George  Stephenson  spent  in  the  mines. 
Became  a  fireman  and  an  engineer.  Built  locomotives.  The  opposition 
of  the  public.  The  trial  trip;  his  prophecy;  his  great  success.  Early 
railroads  in  America.    Travel  by  rail  to-day. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  benefits  you  enjoy 
through  the  railroads.    II.  Describe  your  first  ride  on  a  train. 

Map  Work.  —  Trace  the  routes  of  the  early  railways  in  New  York 
state:  Albany  to  Schenectady;  New  York  to  Chatham;  New  York  to 
Albany. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Earle,  "Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,"  pp.  325-328; 
Earle,  "  Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days." 

Biography.  —  Hubert,  "Inventors,"  pp.  45-69;  Mowry,  "American 
Inventions  and  Inventors,"  pp.  194-228;  Hart  and  Chapman,  "How 
Our  Grandfathers  Lived,"  pp.  102-104. 


Chaise 


MAK.   &  DEF.  —  15 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN 
Boyhood  and  Youth 

Before  the  Revolutionary  War  was  over,  many  hardy 
frontiersmen  and  their  families  began  to  hnd  their  way 
through  the  mountain  passes  of  the  Alleghenies  and  to 
settle  in  the  fertile  country  beyond.  They  were  the  van- 
guard of  a  great  army  of  pioneers  who  peopled  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley. 

Among  these  emigrants  was  a  family  whose  name,  in  the 
crude  spelling  of  the  times,  was  sometimes  given  as  Linkhorn 
and  sometimes  as  Linckorn.  From  this  family  was  descended 
our  great  President,  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  man  whom  our 
poet  Lowell  has  called  "the  First  American."  He  was  born 
in  a  rude  log  cabin  and  reared  amid  the  humblest  circum- 
stances. Yet  he  reached  the  highest  position  of  dignity  and 
honor,  and  is  enshrined  with  Washington  in  the  hearts  of  the 
American  people. 

Abraham's  father,  Thomas  Lincoln,  was  the  son  of  a 
prosperous  Kentucky  pioneer  who  came  from  Virginia  as  a 
friend  of  Daniel  Boone. 

He  purchased  large  tracts  of  land  in  the  new  country,  and 

was  laying  the  foundation  of  an  estate  when  he  was  killed  by 

the  Indians.    His  property  was  left  mainly  to  the  oldest  son, 

and  the  youngest,  Thomas,  was  left  to  shift  for  himself  in  a 

young  and  undeveloped  country.    Thomas  Lincoln  had  no 

chance  to  get  an  education,  but  grew  to  be  an  honest  and 

temperate  man.    He  had  some  skill  as  a  carpenter,  but  was 

230 


BOYHOOD 


231 


an  indifferent  farmer  and  seemed  to  care  more  for  hunting 
and  for  a  wandering  existence.  Indeed,  through  all  his  life 
he  lacked  ambition  and  the  ability  to  conquer  difficulties. 
In  1806  he  was  married  at  Beachland,  Kentucky,  to  Nancy 
Hanks,  a  slender  woman,  of  medium  height,  with  dark  hair 
and  hazel  eyes.  She  is  said  to  have  been  of  a  sensitive  and 
somewhat  melancholy  nature,  qualities  which  her  son  Abra- 
ham inherited.  She  was  also  a  woman  of  native  refinement 
and  of  delicate  instincts,  a  wild  flower  of  the  wilderness. 
Unlike  most  of  her  pioneer  neighbors,  she  knew  how  to  read 
and  write,  and  taught  her  husband  to  write  his  name. 

Soon  after  his  marriage,  Thomas  Lincoln  moved  to  some 
land  on  Nolan  Creek  in  Hardin  County,  and  here  on  the  12  th 
of  February,  1809,  his  son  Abraham  was  born.  Very  few 
children  to-day  have  houses  as  poor  and  as  barren  as  the  one 
to  which  this  little  baby  came.  It  was  built  of  logs  or  poles 
and  was  about  fourteen  feet  square.  The  one  room  within 
had  to  serve  the  fam- 
ily for  parlor,  dining 
room,  bedroom,  and 
kitchen  combined. 
The  floor  had  no  car- 
pet, but  a  bearskin 
was  laid  down  in  cold 
weather  for  the  baby 
to  play  on.  At  one 
end  of  the  room  was 
an  open  fireplace  with 
a  huge  chimney.  Here  Abraham's  mother  cooked  their  simple 
meals.  There  was  an  abundance  of  game  such  as  venison, 
wild  turkey,  and  pigeons,  and  these  would  be  broiled  over  the 
hot  coais  or  boiled  in  a  large  iron  kettle  hanging  from  a  crane 


Lincoln's  Birthplace 


232  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

over  the  fire.  In  the  coals  corn  was  roasted  or  corn  cakes 
baked.  A  few  pots  and  kettles  and  pewter  plates  were  all  the 
dishes  they  had.  Their  table  was  a  board  laid  upon  pegs 
driven  into  the  wall.  A  skin  of  some  wild  animal  would  be 
hung  across  the  doorway  in  cold  weather  to  take  the  place  of 
a  door.  Their  chairs  were  blocks  of  wood  or  three-legged 
stools,  and  their  bed  was  of  poles  covered  with  a  bearskin. 

As  the  little  baby  learned  to  walk  and  play  about  the 
cabin,  his  mother  made  for  him  trousers  of  deerskin  and  a 
little  jacket  and  shirt  of  coarse  tow  cloth  which  she  had 
woven  and  spun. 

In  this  simple  and  primitive  life,  Abraham  grew  to  be  a 
sturdy  boy.  When  he  was  four  years  old,  his  father  moved  to 
Knob  Creek,  and  three  years  later  he  moved  again.  This 
time  he  crossed  the  Ohio  and  took  up  some  land  in  Indiana 
near  Little  Pigeon  Creek,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  Ohio 
River.  This  was  a  wild  and  well-wooded  region  full  of  game, 
and  here  Thomas  Lincoln  thought  he  would  be  content  to 
establish  a  home  and  rear  a  family.  With  little  Abe's  help 
he  built  what  was  called  a  "  half  faced  camp."  It  was  only  a 
shed  of  poles,  entirely  open  on  one  side.  The  crevices  between 
the  poles  were  filled  with  leaves  and  clay  mixed  together, 
while  before  the  camp  a  great  log  fire  was  kept  burning  night 
and  day. 

No  road  reached  this  rude  home  except  the  trail  that 
Lincoln  blazed  through  the  woods,  and  the  nearest  neighbors 
were  miles  away.  For  a  whole  year  they  lived  in  this  open 
camp  while  some  ground  was  being  cleared  and  a  little  crop 
planted. 

During  the  year,  Thomas  Lincoln  built  a  log  cabin  of 
rough  timber,  without  doors,  floor,  or  windows.  Into  the 
half  finished  house,   the  family  moved  the  next  autumn. 


BOYHOOD  233 

They  had  the  roughest  of  furniture.  A  log  smoothed  on  one 
side  was  used  as  a  table;  the  bedsteads  were  made  of  poles 
fastened  to  the  wall  and  resting  on  forked  sticks;  the  chairs 
were  log  blocks  roughly  hewn.  As  in  the  Kentucky  home, 
there  was  a  fireplace  where  the  simple  meals  were  prepared. 
The  cabin  had  been  built  high,  so  that  there  was  room  in 
the  loft.  Little  Abe's  bed  was  in  the  loft,  and  each  night 
he  climbed  a  ladder  made  of  pegs  driven  into  the  logs. 
His  bed  was  not  like  those  to  which  children  to-day  are 
used,  for  it  was  made  in  the  rudest  fashion  with  leaves  or 
straw  instead  of  springs,  and  with  the  skins  of  wild  animals 
for  coverings.  But  the  little  boy,  nevertheless,  slept 
soundly,  for  his  life  in  the  open  air,  clearing  the  land  or 
tilling  the  corn,  made  him  so  tired  at  night  that  any  shelter 
seemed  sweet. 

When  Abraham  was  nine  years  old,  a  great  sorrow  came  into 
his  life.  His  mother,  worn  out  by  the  privations  and  hard- 
ships of  this  frontier  life,  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  malaria 
common  in  a  new  country.  Her  death,  away  from  her  child- 
hood home,  with  no  friends  near  except  her  own  family, 
seemed  doubly  sad.  In  a  rough  coffin  which  Thomas  Lin- 
coln made  from  green  lumber,  she  was  buried  near  their 
cabin.  There  was  no  minister  to  read  the  burial  service,  and 
only  the  autumn  wild  flowers  to  cover  the  humble  grave. 
Something  of  the  loneliness  of  this  touched  little  Abe's  heart 
as  he  grieved  for  his  gentle  and  patient  mother.  He  thought 
of  a  friend  who  was  a  wandering  preacher  in  their  old  home 
in  Kentucky,  and  he  wrote  to  this  friend,  whose  name  was 
David  Elkin,  asking  him  to  come  to  Indiana  and  preach 
his  mother's  funeral  sermon.  So  it  was  that  some  months 
later,  David  Elkin  spoke  a  few  words  of  comfort  above 
the  grave  of  Lincoln's  mother. 


234  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

But  there  was  soon  to  come  into  Abraham's  life  a  woman 
of  a  stronger  nature,  who  had  much  to  do  with  shaping 
the  character  of  the  growing  boy.  This  woman  was  Sarah 
Johnson,  a  widow  whom  Thomas  Lincoln  married  a  few 
months  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife.  She  braced  up  her 
shiftless  husband,  and  made  him  complete  the  cabin  which 
he  had  left  half-finished  so  long.  She  was  a  blessing  to  the 
forlorn  little  family.  With  her  accustomed  thrift  and 
energy  she  took  charge  of  the  children  as  well  as  the 
husband.  She  fed  and  clothed  them  well,  and  made  them 
more  comfortable  than  they  had  ever  been  before. 

She  seems  to  have  been  especially  fond  of  Abraham,  and 
to  have  won  his  affection  by  her  kindness  and  tender  care. 
When  Lincoln  said,  in  after  years,  "All  that  I  am  or  hope  to 
be  I  owe  to  my  angel  mother,"  it  is  probable  that  he  referred 
not  to  his  own  mother  but  to  this  woman  who  treated  him 
with  such  motherly  tenderness.  It  was  to  her,  and  not  to  his 
ignorant  father,  that  he  owed  his  scanty  schooling.  She 
kindled  in  him  an  ambition  to  make  something  of  himself. 
She  sympathized  with  his  love  for  study  and  for  reading.  How 
well  he  repaid  her  for  her  kindly  care  is  shown  by  what  she 
said  of  him  after  he  became  famous:  "Abe  never  gave  me  a 
cross  word  or  look,  and  never  refused  to  do  anything  I 
required  of  him.    He  was  the  best  boy  I  ever  saw." 

She  insisted  that  he  should  be  sent  to  school  as  soon  as 
there  was  one  to  attend.  Back  in  Kentucky  he  had  occasion- 
ally in  the  summer  days  trudged  with  his  sister  to  a  school 
kept  by  Caleb  Hazel.  The  master  taught  reading,  writing, 
and  ciphering  after  a  fashion,  but  his  chief  qualification  was 
his  ability  to  whip  the  big  boys. 

The  first  Indiana  school  Lincoln  attended  was  taught  by 
Hazel  Dorsey.     It  was  a  rough-hewn  cabin  with  a  floor  of 


BOYHOOD   AND   YOUTH 


235 


split  logs  and  with  windows  made  by  covering  holes  in  the 
walls  with  oiled  paper.  The  only  desk  was  a  shelf  near  the 
door  where  the  children  could  stand  and  trace  their  copies. 
The  benches  were  made  of  logs  split  in  halves  and  mounted 
upon  pegs.  In  this  and  in  other  rude  schoolhouses,  Abraham 
Lincoln  got  all  the  schooling  he  ever  had.  It  was  pitifully 
irregular,  for  he  was  often  taken  out  to  help  with  the  farm 


A  Log  Schoolhouse 

work.  It  was  not  always  possible,  either,  in  this  wilderness 
country,  to  find  a  wandering  schoolmaster  who  was  able  or 
willing  to  teach  in  the  little  log  schoolhouse. 

In  the  winter  of  182 2-1 823  Abe  again  attended  school  for  a 
few  months,  and  in  1826,  when  he  was  nearly  seventeen 
years  old,  he  saw  his  last  school  days  under  a  master  named 
Swaney,  who  held  sway  in  a  deserted  cabin  four  and  one 
half  miles  from  Lincoln's  home.     In  all,  Lincoln's  school 


236  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

days  did  not  exceed  a  year,  under  teachers  who  had  scarcely 
more  than  the  rudiments  of  education.  So  you  see  that 
Lincoln  was  correct  when  he  described  his  early  training 
in  the  brief  statement,  "Education  defective." 

Had  he  been  content  with  this,  it  is  not  probable  that  he 
would  have  risen  much  above  the  level  of  his  boyhood  com- 
panions. But  in  some  mysterious  way  he  had  developed  a 
passion  for  reading.  Books  in  that  frontier  region  were  scarce, 
but  such  as  he  had  or  could  borrow,  Lincoln  eagerly  read  and 
thoroughly  learned.  "^Esop's  Fables"  improved  his  native 
art  of  story-telling.  "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress,"  and  especially  the  Bible,  enriched  his  mind  and 
formed  his  taste.  A  history  of  the  United  States,  the  "  Life  of 
Henry  Clay,"  and  Weems's  "Life  of  Washington"  gave  him 
some  knowledge  of  the  history  of  our  country  and  of  its 
great  men. 

The  "Life  of  Washington"  seemed  to  impress  him  more 
than  the  literary  qualities  of  the  work  merited.  It  may  be 
that  he  valued  the  book  so  highly  because  it  was  the  first  one 
he  ever  owned.  He  borrowed  it  from  a  neighbor  and  sat  up 
late  at  night  reading  it  by  the  light  of  a  tallow  candle.  W7hen 
the  candle  burned  out,  Abraham  tucked  the  book  into  a 
crevice  of  the  wall  where  it  would  be  ready  for  him  when  day- 
light came.  He  was  awakened  by  the  patter  of  rain  on  the 
roof,  and  found  that  the  storm  had  beaten  into  the  crevice 
and  damaged  the  book  so  that  it  could  not  be  returned.  Its 
owner  agreed  to  give  it  to  the  boy  in  return  for  three  days' 
labor.     Tn  this  way,  Abraham  earned  his  first  book. 

A  boy  who  was  willing  to  do  this  was  sure  to  succeed  in  his 
efforts  to  get  an  education.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to 
find  him  eagerly  reading  whenever  opportunity  afforded,  or, 
at  night  after  the  day's  work  was  done,  studying  by  the  light 


BOYHOOD   AND   YOUTH 


237 


of  a  log  fire.  Paper  was  scarce,  so  he  used  to  write  with  chalk 
on  the  cabin  walls,  or  figure  with  a  bit  of  charcoal  on  the 
wooden  fire  shovel.  This  he  could  whittle  clean  and  fill  with 
figures,  again  and  again. 

And  so  with  much  hard  work,  some  study,  and  some  play 
—  for  he  was  always  fond  of  shooting,  wrestling  matches, 
and  other  rough  frontier  sports  —  Lincoln  grew  to  young 
manhood.    When  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  made  his 


Lincoln  studying  by  Firelight 

first  trip  to  New  Orleans  on  a  flatboat.  This  long  journey 
in  a  new  country,  among  strange  scenes  and  peoples,  broad- 
ened his  mind  and  added  to  the  store  of  knowledge  he  was 
slowly  accumulating. 

He  continued  to  work  for  his  father  or  for  the  neighbors 
until  he  was  nearly  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Then  Thomas 
Lincoln,  discouraged  by  another  epidemic  of  malaria,  and 
hearing  of  cheaper  and  more  fertile  lands  toward  the  west, 


238  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

determined  to  move  again.  Packing  all  their  household  goods 
into  a  long  covered  wagon,  with  Abraham  driving  the  oxen, 
they  started  on  the  tedious  journey.  After  two  weeks  they 
reached  Illinois  and  located  on  the  Sangamon  River,  about 
ten  miles  west  of  Decatur. 

Abraham  was  now  of  age  and  his  time  was  his  own,  but  he 
remained  to  help  his  father  get  settled.  He  aided  in  clearing 
the  land  and  in  fencing  a  part  of  it  with  rails  which  he  split 
from  logs.  He  helped  in  building  the  new  cabin  home,  and 
in  planting  the  spring  crops.  Then  he  began  to  look  for 
work  for  himself.  But  first  of  all  he  needed  some  clothes,  for 
he  still  wore  the  buckskin  garments  of  the  frontiersman.  So 
he  bargained  with  a  neighbor,  Mrs.  Nancy  Miller,  to  make 
him  a  pair  of  trousers.  He  was  to  split  400  fence  rails  for 
every  yard  of  "brown  Jeans  dyed  with  white  walnut  bark" 
she  wove  for  the  trousers.  As  he  was  unusually  tall  he  had 
to  split  1400  rails  before  the  clothes  were  earned. 

He  had  at  this  time  nearly  reached  his  growth.  Although 
very  tall  and  slender,  he  had  a  rugged  constitution.  His  out- 
door life  gave  him  great  strength,  and  his  skill  in  boxing  and 
wrestling  was  unusual  even  in  a  section  where  physical  prow- 
ess was  common.  He  earned  a  reputation  for  honesty,  as 
well  as  for  courage,  and  won  friends  readily  in  the  new  home. 
In  1 83 1  he  made  his  second  trip  to  New  Orleans  with  a 
boat  load  of  provisions  and  stock.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he 
first  came  in  close  contact  with  the  evils  of  slavery.  He  saw 
gangs  of  slaves  chained  and  driven  through  the  streets  like 
cattle;  he  saw  them  cruelly  whipped  and  sold  in  the  slave 
market;  he  saw  families  separated  and  children  heartlessly 
taken  away  from  their  parents.  Naturally  kind-hearted,  these 
sights  depressed  him  greatly,  and  he  said  to  his  companion, 
"If  I  ever  get  a  chance  to  hit  slavery,  I'll  hit  it  hard." 


BOYHOOD   AND   YOUTH  239 

After  his  return  from  New  Orleans,  Lincoln  worked  as  a 
clerk  in  the  village  store  in  New  Salem,  Illinois.  He  soon 
became  a  favorite  among  the  villagers.  He  was  a  famous 
story-teller,  and  his  skill  as  a  wrestler  won  for  him  the  respect 
of  the  rougher  element  of  the  town.  Here  also  he  gained  a 
reputation  for  uprightness  and  for  square  dealing  in  business 
matters,  so  that  the  people  soon  began  to  call  him  "  Honest 
Abe."  Without  doubt,  this  title  pleased  him  more  than  all 
the  admiration  of  his  physical  strength. 

During  his  leisure  hours,  Lincoln  continued  his  studious 
habits.  He  became  interested  in  politics,  and,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  speak  and  write  correctly,  determined  to  study  gram- 
mar. The  only  text-book  in  the  neighborhood  was  a  copy 
of  "  Kirkham's  English  Grammar,"  owned  by  an  old  school- 
master who  lived  six  miles  out  of  town.  Lincoln  willingly 
walked  there  and  back  in  order  to  borrow  and  study  the 
book. 

In  1832  an  Indian  war  under  the  leadership  of  the  chief 
Black  Hawk  broke  out,  and  Lincoln  was  made  captain  of 
a  company  of  volunteers  raised  in  Sangamon  County  to  aid 
in  subduing  the  Indians.  The  campaign  was  brief,  and  at 
its  close  Lincoln  returned  to  New  Salem.  With  a  partner 
he  opened  a  grocery  store  there.  But  this  venture  did  not 
prove  successful.  His  partner  drank,  and  Lincoln's  mind  was 
on  his  studies  more  than  on  his  business.  So  between  the  two 
men  their  enterprise  was  neglected,  and  soon  failed.  The 
partner  died  soon  after,  and  left  Lincoln  responsible  for  the 
debts  of  the  firm.  They  were  so  large  that  he  afterwards 
referred  to  them  as  the  " national  debt."  It  was  not  until 
many  years  afterward  that  he  was  able  to  pay  the  last  of 
these  debts. 

To  support  himself  after  the  failure  of  the  store,  an  1  to  give 


240 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 


him  money  to  continue  the  study  of  law,  Lincoln  secured 
employment  as  a  surveyor.  He  was  also  for  a  number  of 
years  postmaster  at  Xew  Salem.  In  a  barrel  which  he  pur- 
chased while  keeping 
store,  he  found  a  set 
of  law  books  called 
Blackstone's  "Com- 
mentaries." He  be- 
came greatly  inter- 
ested in  these  and 
in  other  law  books 
which  he  borrowed 
from  a  friend  in 
Springfield  whom  he 
had  met  during  the 
Black  Hawk  War. 
In  order  to  gain  ex- 
perience in  practice, 
he  drew  deeds,  con- 
tracts, and  other  legal 

papers  for  his  neigh- 
Lincoln  as  Storekeeper  ^       Re    ^   cQn_ 

ducted  small  cases  in  the  justice's  court,  and,  in  due  season, 
was  ready  to  practice  his  profession. 

During  this  period  of  study  and  business,  Lincoln  showed 
an  increasing  interest  in  public  affairs.  It  was  a  time  when 
great  issues  in  our  national  affairs  were  at  stake.  The  Whig 
party  was  growing  in  power,  and  its  leaders,  Webster  and 
Clay,  were  making  eloquent  speeches  in  the  United  States 
Senate  in  support  of  national  unity.  Lincoln,  ever  since  his 
boyhood  days,  had  been  an  admirer  of  Clay,  That  states- 
man's life  was  one  of  the  first  books  he  had  read  as  a  child, 


LAWYER  241 

and  when  he  became  a  man  he  was  an  ardent  admirer  of  the 
great  Kentucky  orator.  The  "  Louisville  Journal,"  a  paper 
controlled  by  Clay,  was  one  of  the  influential  newspapers  of 
the  West,  and  Lincoln  was  a  constant  reader  of  this  journal. 
In  this  way  he  kept  himself  informed  regarding  the  political 
questions  of  the  day.  He  was  naturally  a  politician,  rather 
than  a  business  man,  and  his  friends  showed  their  confidence 
in  him  by  electing  him  four  times  to  the  Illinois  legislature. 
His  career  as  a  legislator  during  these  eight  years  was  not 
especially  important,  although  it  gave  him  an  opportunity 
to  take  a  courageous  stand  against  slavery.  The  legislature 
passed  a  strong  proslavery  resolution  against  the  opposition 
of  Lincoln  and  one  other  member.  In  the  protest  which  he 
signed,  he  said  that  he  believed  the  institution  of  slavery  to 
be  founded  on  both  injustice  and  bad  policy.  Thus  early 
in  his  public  career  he  took  a  firm  stand  on  the  right  side  of  a 
great  moral  issue. 

LINCOLN   THE   LAWYER 

During  his  legislative  career,  Lincoln  removed  to  Spring- 
field, the  capital  of  the  state.  Here  he  formed  a  law  partner- 
ship, under  the  firm  name  of  Stuart  and  Lincoln,  with  the 
friend  who  had  helped  him  in  his  legal  studies.  Both  men 
were  well  known  in  that  section,  and  they  soon  built  up  a  fine 
practice.  Stuart  was  actively  engaged  in  political  matters, 
and  left  much  of  the  law  business  of  the  firm  to  his  partner. 
Lincoln's  success  as  a  lawyer  was  due  to  his  absolute  honesty 
and  the  confidence  in  him  which  this  trait  inspired,  rather 
than  to  any  profound  knowledge  of  the  law.  He  would  refuse 
any  case  that  he  believed  to  be  wrong.  Often  after  he  had 
commenced  a  suit,  when  he  found  that  the  law  or  the  evidence 
was  on  the  other  side,  he  would  withdraw  from  the  case.    A 


242  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

fellow  lawyer  said  of  him,  "Love  of  justice  and  fair  play  was 
his  predominant  trait.  It  was  not  in  his  nature  to  assume 
or  attempt  to  bolster  up  a  false  position;  he  would  abandon 
his  case  first." 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  he  became  known  through- 
out the  state,  as  he  had  been  known  in  the  little  village  of 
New  Salem,  as  "Honest  Abe."  The  firm  of  Stuart  and  Lin- 
coln was  dissolved  after  four  years,  and  Lincoln  in  1843  took 
William  H.  Herndon  as  his  partner.  This  firm  remained  in 
existence  until  Lincoln's  death.  For  years  much  of  their 
practice  was  in  the  circuit  courts  which  the  judges  held  in 
different  parts  of  the  state.  In  order  to  try  their  cases,  the 
lawyers  traveled  from  place  to  place  as  court  was  moved. 
This  was  called  "  riding  the  circuit."  Lincoln,  with  the  others, 
was  accustomed  to  do  this  year  after  year,  and  in  this  way 
built  up  a  large  acquaintanceship  throughout  the  state.  Cir- 
cuit riding  in  those  days  was  not  an  easy  task.  The  roads 
in  stormy  weather  were  almost  impassable;  sometimes  there 
were  only  trails;  the  streams  were  without  bridges  and  often 
swollen;  and  the  accommodations  at  the  country  taverns  were 
meager.  But  these  experiences  in  a  new  country  brought 
him  home  to  the  hearts  of  the  common  people.  He  knew  them, 
for  he  was  one  of  them,  and  this  knowledge  helped  to  guide 
him  when  he  became  their  great  leader. 

Many  stories  are  told  of  his  kindness  of  heart  at  this  period 
as  well  as  throughout  his  life.  He  sympathized  with  the 
unfortunate  and  the  oppressed.  He  often  took  cases  when 
he  had  no  expectation  of  being  paid  a  fee.  He  could  be  as 
tender  as  a  woman  to  misfortune  and  suffering.  He  was 
fond  of  children  and  dumb  animals,  once  even  going  out  of 
his  way  to  put  some  young  birds  back  in  their  nest.  One  of 
his  most  eloquent  appeals  for  justice  was  in  a  suit  where  he 


LAWYER  243 

prosecuted  a  pension  agent  for  cheating  a  poor  widow. 
Some  one  has  said  that  "No  one  ever  accused  him  of  taking 
an  unfair  or  underhanded  advantage  in  the  whole  course  of 
his  professional  career." 

It  seems  strange  that  such  a  tender-hearted  and  kindly 
natured  man  as  Lincoln  could  not  have  won  complete  happi- 
ness for  himself.  But  he  was  given  to  fits  of  brooding  and  of 
melancholy,  and  through  all  his  life  was  a  lonely  man  among 
a  multitude  of  friends. 

In  1842  Lincoln  met  and  married  Mary  Todd.  He  was 
a  faithful  husband  and  a  good  father,  but  his  wife  never 
fully  understood  him,  and  his  home  life  was  full  of  trials. 
Their  home  in  Springfield  was  an  ordinary  frame  house, 
where  they  lived  simply  and  quietly.  Indeed,  even  to  the 
time  that  he  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States, 
Lincoln  did  all  of  the  outdoor  work  about  the  place  — 
milked  the  cow,  cared  for  the  horse,  and  chopped  the  wood 
for  the  kitchen  fire.  His  life  was  in  no  way  different  from 
that  of  his  less  noted  neighbors.  His  dress  was  as  simple  as 
were  his  habits  of  life.  In  cold  weather  he  wore  an  old  gray 
shawl  about  his  shoulders.  The  nap  on  his  "stove  pipe" 
hat  was  usually  rubbed  the  wrrong  way,  and  his  boots  were 
unpolished.  He  often  carried  a  faded  green  umbrella  with 
a  string  tied  about  its  middle.  As  he  rode  the  circuit  in  his 
old  open  buggy  or  on  horseback,  he  carried  his  legal  papers 
in  the  pockets  of  his  saddle,  or  in  a  dilapidated  carpetbag. 

But  with  all  this  uncouthness  of  dress  and  of  manner, 
there  was  an  unselfishness  and  a  gentleness  in  his  homely 
and  rugged  face  that  drew  all  men  to  him.  And  wrhen,  in  after 
years,  the  burdens  and  the  sorrows  of  the  Civil  War  were  thrust 
upon  him,  his  countenance  seemed  to  reflect  all  the  pity  and 
the  pathos  of  that  dreadful  struggle. 


244-  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 


LINCOLN   THE   POLITICIAN 


Lincoln  had  gained  some  experience  in  political  life  during 
the  eight  years  he  served  in  the  Illinois  legislature.  After  its 
close  he  continued  to  practice  law  at  Springfield  until,  in  1846, 
he  was  elected  to  Congress.  Here  he  gained  some  reputation 
as  a  clear  and  logical  speaker,  as  a  loyal  member  of  the  Whig 
party,  and  as  an  opponent  of  the  extension  of  slavery.  He 
took  the  position  that  the  Mexican  War,  then  being  fought, 
had  been  forced  upon  Mexico  by  the  President  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  acquiring  more  slaveholding  territory.  In  his 
famous  "Spot  Resolutions,"  he  called  upon  the  President 
to  put  his  finger  on  the  spot  where,  as  the  President  said, 
Mexico  had  shed  American  blood  upon  American  soil.  He 
voted  also  in  favor  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  a  measure 
intended  to  prohibit  slavery  in  any  territory  acquired 
from  Mexico. 

Returning  to  his  home  after  this  term  in  Congress,  Lin- 
coln says  of  himself,  "I  was  losing  interest  in  politics  when 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  aroused  me  again." 
You  have  been  told  in  the  life  of  Henry  Clay  what  this  meas- 
ure was  and  how  it  was  expected  to  settle  forever  the  question 
of  the  extension  of  slavery.  But  the  thirty  years  following  its 
adoption  were  years  of  marked  western  expansion.  Great 
tides  of  emigration  flowed  largely  from  the  northern  states 
into  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  This  was 
especially  true  after  the  discovery,  in  1848,  of  gold  in  Cal- 
ifornia. The  southern  statesmen  had  hoped  that  most  of  the 
territory  won  from  Mexico  at  the  close  of  the  Mexican  War 
would  become  slaveholding  states.  In  this,  however,  they 
were  disappointed,  for  the  greater  number  of  the  western 
pioneers  were  northern  men,  and  opposed  to  the  institution  of 


POLITICIAN  245 

slavery.  So  when  California,  in  1850,  sought  admission 
into  the  Union  as  a  free  state,  the  southern  members  of 
Congress  were  bitterly  opposed.  Clay's  Compromise  Bill 
of  1850  aimed  to  quiet  this  discord  and  to  satisfy  both 
sections  by  admitting  California  as  a  free  state,  and  by 
providing  that  the  other  land  acquired  from  Mexico  should 
be  organized  as  territories  without  any  reference  to  the 
question  of  slavery.  This  meant  that  the  settlers  there 
would  be  free  to  decide  the  matter  for  themselves  when  the 
time  came  for  the  creation  of  states  from  these  territories. 

Neither  the  North  nor  the  South  was  satisfied  with  this 
measure.  It  left  the  question  of  whether  slavery  was  morally 
and  economically  right  or  wrong  as  much  unsettled  as  it  had 
been  before.  The  agitation  was  renewed  when  Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  in  1854,  introduced  in  Congress  a  bill  to  organize 
two  territories,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  out  of  that  great 
section  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  north  of  the  parallel  of 
360  30',  and  west  of  the  states  of  Missouri  and  Iowa.  This 
measure,  known  as  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  swept  away 
all  the  restrictions  regarding  slavery  which  were  contained 
in  the  Missouri  Compromise.  It  established  the  doctrine 
of  state  sovereignty  —  that  a  state  might  decide  for  itself 
whether  it  would  be  a  free  or  a  slaveholding  state. 

Immediately  after  the  passage  of  the  bill,  a  struggle  began 
between  the  North  and  the  South  for  the  possession  of  Kan- 
sas. Each  side  tried  to  get  a  majority  for  the  first  territorial 
election  there.  Slaveholding  settlers,  " border  ruffians" 
they  were  sometimes  called,  from  Missouri  and  other 
southern  states,  crossed  over  into  the  territory.  In  the 
North,  too,  emigration  societies  were  formed  to  raise  money 
and  to  hurry  settlers  to  Kansas.  Among  these  emigrants 
was  one  John  Brown  and  his  stalwart  sons,  all  haters  of 

MAK.  &  DEF.  —  16 


246  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

slavery,  and  destined  to  become  famous  at  Harpers  Ferry 
in  1859,  when  they  seized  the  United  States  arsenal  there 
and  endeavored  to  arouse  a  rebellion  among  the  slaves  in 
Virginia.  It  is  not  strange  that  these  two  classes  of  settlers 
soon  clashed,  and  that  a  very  bitter  and  bloody  little  war 
broke  out  in  Kansas  between  them.  The  struggle  lasted 
for  years,  but  in  the  end  Kansas  was  admitted  as  a  free 
state. 

Bitter  feeling  was  also  greatly  intensified  by  the  attempt 
during  these  exciting  years  to  enforce  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law. 
This  was  a  law  of  Congress  by  which  negroes  who  had  escaped 
could  be  arrested  and  returned  to  their  owners.  Several  of 
the  northern  states  refused  to  allow  this  law  to  be  enforced 
within  their  borders,  and  abolitionists  aided  runaway  slaves 
to  escape  into  Canada  by  means  of  the  so-called  underground 
railroads.  Then  came  the  famous  Dred  Scott  decision  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  Scott  was  a  negro  who 
had  been  taken  by  his  master  from  Missouri,  a  slave  state, 
into  a  free  state.  Upon  their  return  to  Missouri,  Scott  sued 
for  his  freedom  on  the  ground  that  having  lived  in  a  free 
state  he  was  a  free  man.  The  court  decided  against  him, 
and  the  decision  meant,  of  course,  that  southern  slaveholders 
could  take  their  negroes  anywhere  in  the  Union  and  still  hold 
them  as  slaves.  Such  an  interpretation  of  the  law  alarmed  the 
northern  people  greatly,  for  it  meant,  if  put  into  practice,  the 
indefinite  extension  of  slavery. 

These  vital  issues  which  tried  men's  souls  served  also  to 
break  down  old  party  lines.  The  Whig  party,  some  one 
humorously  said,  "  died  of  an  attempt  to  swallow  the  Omnibus 
Bill,"  as  the  Compromise  of  1850  was  sometimes  called.  Its 
neutral  attitude  regarding  the  extension  of  slavery  pleased 
neither  its  northern  nor  its  southern  members.    New  parties 


POLITICIAN  247 

such  as  the  "Free  Soilers,"  the  "Anti-Nebraska  Democrats," 
and  the  "Americans"  sprang  into  life. 

Gradually  these  organizations  drew  more  closely  together. 
They  differed  in  minor  matters,  but  had  a  common  bond  of 
sympathy  in  their  opposition  to  the  further  extension  of 
slavery.  So  from  these  various  elements  the  Republican 
party  was  formed.  It  grew  rapidly,  and  in  the  election  of 
1856,  the  first  presidential  campaign  in  which  it  engaged, 
polled  over  a  million  votes. 

In  Illinois,  Abraham  Lincoln  at  once  became  the  recog- 
nized leader  of  the  new  party,  and  was  its  candidate  for 
United  States  Senator  from  that  state.  In  the  speech  which 
he  made,  upon  accepting  the  nomination,  he  said  regarding 
the  preservation  of  the  Union,  "'A  house  divided  against 
itself  cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  government  cannot  en- 
dure permanently  half  slave  and  half  free.  I  do  not  expect 
the  Union  to  be  dissolved.  I  do  not  expect  the  house  to  fall 
—  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided.  It  will  become 
all  one  thing  or  all  the  other." 

Then  followed  a  masterly  statement  of  the  principles  of  his 
party  and  a  review  of  the  measures  by  which  the  proslavery 
statesmen  sought  to  dominate  the  political  life  of  the  nation. 
In  closing,  he  voiced  his  belief  in  the  justice  of  his  cause  and 
in  the  ultimate  success  of  the  right.  "The  result  is  not 
doubtful,"  he  said;  "if  we  stand  firm,  we  shall  not  fail  — 
sooner  or  later  the  victory  is  sure  to  come." 

His  opponent  in  the  campaign  which  followed  was  Stephen 
A.  Douglas.  During  the  campaign,  the  rival  candidates 
spoke  in  a  series  of  joint  debates  throughout  the  state  of 
Illinois.  The  "Lincoln-Douglas  Debates,"  as  they  were 
called,  are  perhaps  the  greatest  series  of  campaign  speeches 
the  political  history  of  this  country  has  known.     Douglas 


248  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

was  the  most  brilliant  leader  in  the  Democratic  party.    He 
was  a  man  of  national  reputation,  of  charming  personality, 
a  successful  politician,  and  a  skillful  debater.    Mr.  Lincoln, 
on  the  other  hand,  lacked  most  of  the  characteristics  of  a 
great  orator.    He  was  tall  and  awkward,  and  his  voice  was 
shrill  and  piping.     But  his  intense  earnestness,  his  simple 
yet  resistless  logic,  and  his  belief  in  the  righteousness  of  his 
cause,  carried  conviction  to  the  minds  of  his  hearers. 
In  one  of  the  debates,  Douglas  asserted  that  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  did  not 
include  the  negroes  when  it 
declared  that  "  all  men  are  cre- 
ated equal."     Lincoln  reply- 
ing said :  "  I  do  not  understand 
the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence to  mean  that   all  men 
were  created  equal  in  all  re- 
spects.   They  are  not  equal  in 
color.     But  I  believe  that  it 
does  mean  to  declare  that  all 
men  are  equal   in   some  re- 
spects; they  are  equal  in  their 

Stephen  A.  Douglas  ..,  ,     , 

right  to  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness."  Blaine  said  that  Lincoln  did  not  seek 
to  emphasize  in  these  speeches  the  thing  that  was  for  the  day 
only,  but  the  thing  which  would  stand  the  test  of  time  and 
square  itself  with  eternal  justice. 

As  a  result  of  the  campaign,  Douglas  was  elected  to  the 
Senate.  But  these  debates  gave  Lincoln  a  wide  reputation 
as  an  orator  and  statesman.  To  this  reputation  he  added 
afterwards  by  some  masterly  speeches  in  New  York  and  in 
other  eastern  cities.    He  became  a  figure  of  national  impor- 


PRESIDENT  249 

tance,  and  was  looked  upon  by  many  as  an  available  candidate 
for  the  Presidency. 

LINCOLN   THE   PRESIDENT 

Lincoln  was  soon  to  reap  his  reward  for  his  forceful  state- 
ment of  lofty  moral  principles,  for  when  the  time  came,  in 
i860,  to  elect  another  President,  the  Republican  party  pre- 
sented his  name  as  its  candidate.  The  Democrats  were 
hopelessly  divided,  and  the  Republicans  had  high  hopes  of 
success  at  the  polls.  The  people  of  the  South  feared  Lin- 
coln's election,  for  they  had  gained  the  impression  that  he 
and  the  party  he  represented  were  pledged  to  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  they  felt  that  this  meant  ruin  for  them.  That 
they  were  mistaken  in  their  conception  of  Lincoln's  attitude 
is  certain.  He  was  determined  to  save  the  Union  at  any 
cost,  and  to  prevent  the  further  extension  of  slavery,  but  he 
expressly  and  repeatedly  stated  that  he  did  not  intend  to 
interfere  with  slavery  in  the  states  where  it  was  already 
established.  However,  this  misconception  of  Lincoln's  at- 
titude was  only  one  of  the  causes  for  the  differences  of 
opinion  between  the  two  great  sections  of  our  country. 

Most  of  the  commercial  activity  and  business  enterprise 
was  centered  in  the  northern  and  central  western  states. 
The  South,  on  the  other  hand,  with  its  great  resources  of 
mine  and  forest  undeveloped,  was  essentially  an  agricultural 
country. 

The  doctrine  of  state  rights  had  for  years  been  instilled 
into  the  minds  of  the  southern  people  by  their  leaders,  while 
the  North  believed  more  firmly  than  ever  before  in  the  sacred- 
ness  and  integrity  of  the  Union  under  the  Constitution.  In 
social  conditions,  in  systems  of  labor  and  education,  and  in 
policies  of  government,  the  two  sections  had  never  been  in 


250  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

harmony,  and  the  breach  rapidly  widened  after  Lincoln's 
election.  Some  of  the  southern  states  threatened  to  secede 
if  Lincoln  were  chosen  President,  and  immediately  they  pro- 
ceeded to  carry  out  this  threat. 

South  Carolina,  always  the  foremost  advocate  of  state 
rights,  was  the  first  to  act.  In  December,  i860,  she  declared 
that  she  no  longer  owed  allegiance  to  the  United  States. 
Other  southern  states  soon  followed,  and  in  February,  1861, 
formed  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  the  "  Confederate  States 
of  America."  The  states  thus  in  rebellion  were  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and 
Texas.  To  these  were  added,  later,  North  Carolina,  Ten- 
nessee, Virginia,  and  Arkansas,  making  eleven  states  in  re- 
bellion. The  break  which  men  had  feared  so  long  had  come! 
The  day  for  compromise  was  past!  Henceforth  the  great 
issues  that  had  been  so  bitterly  discussed  in  legislative 
halls  and  in  the  press,  were  to  be  fought  out  in  the  field. 
It  was  to  be  now  an  appeal  to  arms  and  to  the  God  of  battles. 

Although  Lincoln  had  been  elected  in  November  of  i860, 
it  was  not  until  March  of  the  following  year  that  he  was 
inaugurated.  In  the  meantime,  the  rebellious  states  actively 
prepared  for  war.  United  States  arsenals  and  arms  were 
seized,  troops  were  raised,  and  fortifications  prepared,  while 
the  northern  government  made  no  effort  to  protect  itself. 

Lincoln  remained  quietly  at  home,  waiting  for  the  time 
when,  as  President  of  the  United  States,  he  would  endeavor 
to  preserve  the  Union.  On  the  day  before  he  left  Springfield 
for  Washington,  he  went  to  his  office  to  say  good-by  to  his 
partner.  When  the  time  came  for  them  to  part,  he  said  to 
Mr.  Herndon,  "Billy,  how  long  have  we  been  together?" 

"Over  sixteen  years,"  he  answered. 

"We've  never  had  a  cross  word  during  all  that  time, 


PRESIDENT  251 

have  we?"  said  Lincoln.  Then  he  asked  that  the  office 
sign  which  hung  on  its  rusty  hinges  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs 
be  undisturbed,  saying,  "The  election  of  a  President  makes 
no  change  in  the  firm  of  Lincoln  and  Herndon.  If  I  live, 
I  am  coming  back  sometime,  and  then  we'll  go  right  on 
practicing  law  as  if  nothing  had  happened." 

The  next  day  he  left  his  home  to  assume  responsibilities 
greater  than  any  which  had  ever  before  confronted  a  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  But  he  did  not  falter  in  his  task, 
nor  fail  in  any  way  to  do  his  duty.  The  solemn  oath  he 
took  on  the  4th  of  March,  1861,  to  uphold  the  Constitu- 
tion and  to  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  government,  was 
never  broken.  When  actual  war  was  begun  by  the  attack 
upon  Fort  Sumter,  a  fort  held  by  United  States  troops  in 


i^pSBBWWWWPIWMi 


Fort  Sumter 


the  harbor  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  (April  12,  186 1),  he  called 
for  seventy-five  thousand  volunteers  to  suppress  the  re- 
bellion and  to  enforce  the  laws.  The  response  was  in- 
stantaneous. When  the  news  flashed  over  the  wires  that 
the  American  flag  had  been  fired  upon  and  that  Fort 
Sumter  had  fallen,  the  whole  North  was  aroused.  The 
men  whom  southern  politicians  said  were  too  selfish  or  too 
cowardly  to  fight,  rushed  by  thousands  to  uphold  the  Stars 
and  Stripes. 


252 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 


Both  sides  in  their  enthusiasm  thought  that  the  war  would 
be  of  short  duration,  each  underestimating  the  strength  and 
determination  of  its  opponent.  The  South,  impatient  to  end 
the  war,  urged  its  soldiers  to  press  forward  and  capture  Wash- 
ington. The  North,  also  confident  of  victory,  cried,  "On 
to  Richmond!  On  to  Richmond!"     It  was  not  until  the  two 

armies  met  on  the 
held  of  Bull  Run  and 
measured  each  other's 
strength  that  they 
realized  the  desperate 
character  of  the 
struggle.  The  Union 
troops,  defeated  in 
this  battle,  were  driv- 
en back  upon  Wash- 
ington. Congress, 
alarmed  at  the  dis- 
aster, awoke  to  the 
fact  that  more  troops 
were  needed;  that  it 
took  time  to  equip  and 
discipline    an    army. 

Country  around  Washington  At       Qnce        Congress 

voted  to  raise  five  hundred  million  dollars  and  five  hun- 
dred thousand  men  for  three  years  or  until  the  war  was 
ended.  As  the  soldiers  enlisted  and  marched  to  the  front  in 
response  to  their  country's  call,  there  rose  from  village  and 
farm,  from  every  city  and  town  the  stirring  battle  cry,  "We 
are  coming,  Father  Abraham,  five  hundred  thousand  strong!" 
Plans  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  were  gradually  shap- 
ing themselves  under  the  direction  and  guidance  of  Lincoln. 


0     10    20     30     40 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


253 


As  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  he  had  charge 
of  the  selection  of  officers,  the  maintenance  of  the  army,  and 
the  general  military  movements.  There  was  to  be  a  three- 
fold campaign:  First,  the  Mississippi  was  to  be  opened  and 
the  Confederacy  split  in  half.  Second,  Richmond  was  to  be 
attacked.  Third,  the  southern  seaports  were  to  be  blockaded 
in  order  that  the  South  might  not  send  its  cotton  to  Europe  and 


The  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor 

receive  in  return  money  and  supplies  from  foreign  ports. 
Grant  accomplished  the  first  of  these  objects  in  1803,  when 
Vicksburg  surrendered  to  him;  Richmond  did  not  fall  until 
the  war  was  practically  ended;  but  the  blockade  was  immedi- 
ately effective. 

The  battle  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac  was  an 
interesting  incident  of  this  blockade.  It  was  important,  also, 
because  it  revolutionized  naval  warfare.     A  fleet  of  wooden 


254  ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

warships  was  stationed  in  Hampton  Roads,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  James  River.  Against  them  the  Confederates  sent  the 
Merrimac,  a  wooden  vessel  sheathed  with  iron  plates  and 
fitted  with  a  huge  iron  prow.  Shot  and  shell  had  no 
effect  against  the  monster  "ironclad,"  and  she  was  rapidly 
making  havoc  with  the  Union  fleet,  when  the  Monitor  ap- 
peared. This  strange  looking  craft  was  a  new  Union  "  iron- 
clad," invented  by  John  Ericsson  and  recently  completed  in 
the  Brooklyn  navy  yard.  She  was  simply  a  hull  with  a  re- 
volving tower  in  the  center,  protected  by  heavy  armor  plate. 
The  Confederates  called  her  in  derision  the  "  Yankee  cheese 
box,"  but  in  the  sea  duel  between  the  two  monsters,  the 
Monitor  drove  the  Merrimac  to  shelter,  saved  the  rest  of  the 
Union  fleet,  and  maintained  the  blockade. 

After  a  second  victory  at  Bull  Run,  the  Confederates  deter- 
mined to  invade  the  North.  The  Union  general,  McClellan, 
had  failed  in  what  is  known  as  the  Peninsular  Campaign, 
and  the  Confederate  troops,  flushed  with  victory,  pressed 
forward  eagerly  into  Maryland.  Here  at  Sharpsburg,  on 
Antietam  Creek,  a  battle  was  fought  (September  17,  1862) 
and  their  advance  checked.  President  Lincoln  awaited  the 
result  of  this  battle  with  intense  anxiety,  for  he  felt  that  it 
might  decide  the  fate  of  the  Union.  He  saw  that  the  people 
of  the  whole  country  now  realized  —  as  he  had  long  ago  — 
that  the  evil  of  slavery  was  at  the  root  of  the  rebellion. 
Lincoln  said  he  had  promised  God  that  if  the  Union  forces 
were  victorious  at  Antietam,  he  would  free  the  slaves.  Accord- 
ingly, on  the  first  of  January,  1863,  Lincoln  issued  the  Eman- 
cipation Proclamation,  proclaiming  all  the  slaves  in  the  states 
then  in  rebellion,  free.  This  historic  measure  made  Lincoln 
immortal,  and  hastened  the  end  of  the  war. 

The  two  great  military  events  of  1863  were  the  surrender 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


255 


of  Vicksburg  and  th  c  defeat  of  the  Confederate  army  under 
Lee  at  Gettysburg.  Both  occurred  at  almost  the  same  time, 
early  in  the  month  of  July.  How  the  capture  of  Vicksburg 
was  accomplished,  and  how  it  brought  to  the  front  a  new 
military  leader,  will  be  told  more  fully  in  the  life  of  Grant. 
The  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  the  turning  point  of  the  war. 
Never  again,  after  Gettysburg,  did  Confederate  armies 
seek  to  invade  the  North.     Step  by  step,  losing  ground 


Lincoln  reading  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  to  his  Cabinet 

day  by  day,  they  fought,  now  always  upon  the  defensive, 
until  they  surrendered  at  Appomattox  (April  9,  1865)  and 
the  war  was  ended. 

It  had  been  a  terrible  struggle.  For  four  long  dismal  years, 
the  brave  men  of  the  South  and  of  the  North  had  fought, 
each  section  believing  in  the  righteousness  and  justice  of  its 
cause.  Through  it  all,  our  great  President  had  borne  the 
burdens  of  his  high  office  with  patience  and  with  a  stead- 


256 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 


fast  courage.  "With  malice  toward  none  and  with  charity 
for  all"  he  followed  the  path  of  duty  until  he  saved  the 
nation.  His  clouded  brow  relaxed,  his  wearied  face  grew 
calm  as  he  looked  forward  to  the  days  of  peace.  Already 
his  great  heart  was  planning  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds 
and  to  establish  firmly  a  reunited  country,  when  the  end 
suddenly  came.  On  the  evening  of  April  14,  1865,  as 
Lincoln  sat  with  his  wife  in  a  box  in  Ford's  Theater  in 

Washington,  he  was  shot 


by  an  assassin.  The  bul- 
let, passing  through  the 
brain,  left  him  uncon- 
scious, and  he  died  the 


V*^ 

.«.*"-. 


^£M&-  ■■:■ 


&-3,:Milm 


next  morning. 

Flags  that    had    been 
flying   in   triumph   were 
lowered  to  half-mast   in 
sorrow.     Amid  the  tears 
Ford's  Theater,  Washington  0f  the  nation  and  the  pro- 

found grief  of  the  world,  he  was  laid  to  rest  in  his  old  home 
at  Springfield.  In  his  death,  the  nation  lost  its  greatest 
hero;  in  his  death,  the  South  lost  its  most  just  friend.  His 
life  is  an  inspiration  to  humanity.  Roosevelt  voices  its  les- 
son to  America  when  he  says,  "All  of  us  alike,  Northerners 
and  Southerners,  Easterners  and  Westerners,  can  best  prove 
our  fealty  to  the  Nation's  past  by  the  way  in  which  we  do  the 
Nation's  work  in  the  present:  for  only  thus  can  we  be  sure 
that  our  children's  children  shall  inherit  Abraham  Lincoln's 
single-hearted  devotion  to  the  great  unchanging  creed  that 
'righteousness  exalteth  a  Nation.'  " 

Topical  Outline.  —  Lincoln's  early   life;   his  ancestry;   his  homes; 
his  schools;  the  influence  of  his  stepmother  upon  his  career.    Lincoln's 


CIVIL  WAR  257 

life  in  Illinois;  his  trips  to  New  Orleans;  his  studies  and  occupations; 
how  he  fitted  himself  for  public  affairs.  Lincoln  the  lawyer  and  poli- 
tician: legislative  career;  professional  and  home  life  at  Springfield; 
service  in  Congress.  Lincoln  the  statesman  and  hero:  growth  of 
slavery  agitation;  measures  which  aroused  the  North;  the  Lincoln- 
Douglas  debates;  Lincoln's  election  as  President;  why  the  North  and 
the  South  failed  to  understand  each  other;  Civil  War;  death. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  story  about  Lincoln's  early  life 
in  Illinois.  II.  Imagine  yourself  a  playmate  of  Lincoln's;  tell  the  story 
of  a  day's  visit  at  his  home.  III.  Describe  the  Lincoln-Douglas 
debates,  or  describe  the  sea-duel  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor. 
IV.  What  was  Lincoln's  greatest  act  as  President?  V.  Why  do  you 
admire  the  character  of  Lincoln  ? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Springfield,  Illinois  (p.  304);  Fort  Sumter, 
Washington,  Richmond,  Antietam,  Hampton  Roads,  Gettysburg. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Hart  and  Stevens,  "  Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  1- 
112;  Kieffer,  "Recollections  of  a  Drummer  Boy." 

Biography.  —  Brooks,  "Century  Book  of  Famous  Americans," 
pp.  193-210;  Baldwin,  "Abraham  Lincoln";  Brooks,  "True  Story  of 
Lincoln";  Tarbell,  "Life  of  Lincoln";  Moore,  "Life  of  Lincoln";  Tar- 
bell,  "He  Knew  Lincoln";  Lincoln,  Last  Paragraph  of  Second  Inaug- 
ural; Nicolay,  "  The  Boy's  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  ";  Cravens,  "  Story 
of  Lincoln." 

Poetry.  —  Howe,  "Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic";  Whittier,  "Bar- 
bara Frietchie";  Markham,  "Lincoln,  the  Great  Commoner";  Whit- 
man, "O  Captain,  My  Captain  ";  Stevenson,  "  Poems  of  American  His- 
tory." 

Fiction.  —  Churchill,  "The  Crisis";  Butterworth,  "  Boyhood  of  Lin- 
coln ";  Andrews,  "  The  Perfect  Tribute  ";  Gerry,  "  The  Toy  Shop." 


GRANT,  THE  SILENT  LEADER 

Hiram  Ulysses  Grant,  the  great  commander  of  the  Civil 
War,  was  of  New  England  descent.  His  ancestors,  for  gener- 
ations, had  been  sober,  God-fearing  people,  of  simple  habits 
and  of  sturdy  courage.  There  had  been  soldiers  and  pioneers 
among  them,  brave  men  and  loyal  women,  sound  stuff  out  of 
which  to  build  a  nation.  On  his  mother's  side  was  good 
Scotch  blood.  Indeed,  many  of  the  qualities  of  mind  which 
made  him  famous,  he  inherited  from  his  mother.  The  Grant 
home  was  at  Point  Pleasant,  on  the  Ohio  River,  near  Cincin- 
nati. 

Here  on  April  27,  1822,  the  subject  of  this  sketch  was  born. 
His  father,  Jesse  Grant,  was  a  farmer  and  tanner  in  comfort- 
able circumstances.  The  year  after  the  birth  of  Ulysses,  the 
family  moved  to  Georgetown.  Mr.  Grant  prospered  in  the 
new  home  and  lived  there  many  years.  Life  in  this  Ohio 
village  then  was  not  much  different  from  what  it  is  to-day  in 
thousands  of  quiet  villages  throughout  the  country.  There 
was  no  great  wealth  in  the  community,  nor  was  there  extreme 
poverty.  Every  one  lived  simply  and  quietly.  Among  such 
fortunate  surroundings,  Grant's  boyhood  days  were  spent. 

He  grew  to  be  a  sturdy,  self-reliant  lad.  attended  school 

regularly,  and  was  taught  to  do  his  share  of  the  daily  work  at 

home  and  on  the  farm.     He  says  of  himself,  "When  I  was 

seven  or  eight  years  of  age,  I  began  hauling  all  the  wood  used 

in  the  house  and  shops.     When  about  eleven  years  old,  I 

was  strong  enough  to  hold  a  plow.     From  that  age  until 

258 


BOYHOOD 


259 


seventeen,  I  did  all  the  work  done  with  horses.  I  did  not 
like  to  work;  but  I  did  as  much  of  it  as  grown  men  can  be 
hired  to  do  in  these  days,  and  attended  school  at  the  same 
time."  His  sports  were  equally  simple  and  wholesome.  Fish- 
ing, hunting,  and  swimming  in  the  summer,  and  skating  and 
sleighing  in  the  winter,  made  the  days  and  years  pass  swiftly 
and  happily.  Even  as  a  child  he  knew  and  loved  horses,  and 
spent  many  of  his  leisure  hours  on  horseback,  riding  usually 
without  a  saddle.  His  parents  governed  him  kindly  but 
firmly,  and  he  was  always  an  obedient  son.  This  home 
training  and  this  outdoor  life  made  him  a  clean-minded, 
strong-muscled  boy  ready  for  the  work  of  a  man. 

When  Ulysses  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  his  father  ob- 
tained for  him  an  ap- 
pointment as  a  cadet  in 
the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  at  West 
Point.  The  boy  did  not 
want  to  go,  but  obeyed 
his  father.  When  he  ar- 
rived at  the  Academy  he 
found  that,  through  an 
error,  his  name  had  been 
given  in  the  papers  filed 
with  his  appointment,  as 
Ulysses  Simpson  Grant. 
After  trying    for    some 

time    to    have    this   mis-  Grant  at  West  Point 

take  righted,  he  adopted  the  new  name,  and  used  it  there- 
after. 

During  the  four  years  at  West  Point,  young  Grant  did  not 
distinguish  himself  as  a  student,  except  in  his  mathematical 


260  GRANT 

studies.  His  early  experience  with  horses,  however,  now 
proved  valuable,  and  he  became  one  of  the  expert  horsemen 
among  the  students. 

In  1843  Grant  finished  his  military  training  and  began  his 
service  as  a  second  lieutenant  in  the  regular  army.  He  was 
stationed  at  Jefferson  Barracks  near  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  and 
entered  at  once  upon  the  routine  of  garrison  duty  and  camp 
,life.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  was  called  upon  for 
more  active  service.  Texas  had  seceded  from  the  republic  of 
Mexico,  and  had  formed  an  independent  government.  In 
1845  the  "Lone  Star  Republic,"  as  she  was  called,  was 
admitted  into  the  United  States.  But  in  the  annexation  of 
Texas  we  annexed  also  her  quarrel  with  Mexico  over  the 
boundary  line  between  the  two  countries.  Troops  were 
ordered  to  the  frontier,  and  before  long,  war  was  declared. 
Grant,  like  most  men  of  the  North,  thought  that  the  wai 
was  unjust;  that  it  had  been  forced  upon  Mexico  by  south- 
ern politicians  in  their  greed  for  more  slaveholding  territory. 
But  he  was  a  soldier,  and  it  was  his  duty  to  obey.  His  first 
battle  was  on  the  frontier  at  Palo  Alto,  under  General  Taylor 
as  the  commander  of  the  American  forces.  But  it  was  at 
Monterey  that  Grant  distinguished  himself  as  a  brave  soldier 
under  fire.  During  the  progress  of  the  battle,  ammunition 
for  a  part  of  the  army  gave  out.  Volunteers  were  called  for, 
to  ride  across  the  bullet-swept  city  with  orders  for  a  fresh 
supply.  Grant  was  the  first  to  respond.  Clinging  to  his 
horse,  with  his  body  on  the  unexposed  side,  with  one  leg 
thrown  over  the  saddle  and  with  his  arms  clasped  around  the 
horse's  neck,  Indian  fashion,  he  rode  swiftly  across  the  lines 
and  delivered  his  orders. 

The  next  year  Grant  was  with  General  Scott  in  the  march 
from  the  sea  against  the  city  of  Mexico.    In  the  movements 


BUSINESS   MAN  261 

which  culminated  in  the  surrender  of  that  city,  Grant  again 
showed  the  stuff  he  was  made  of  by  seizing  a  church  over- 
looking the  city  and  by  dragging  a  small  cannon  up  into  its 
belfry.  He  was  able  from  this  elevation  to  throw  shot  and 
shell  into  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Grant's  heart  was  not  in 
this  war,  although,  as  we  have  seen,  he  did  his  duty  bravely 
and  efficiently.  The  war,  however,  was  a  valuable  training 
for  him,  and  for  many  others,  for  the  more  serious  struggle 
of  later  years.  His  letters  home  at  this  time  did  not  have 
much  to  say  about  battles  or  the  dark  side  of  the  conflict,  but 
were  full  of  his  admiration  for  the  strange  sights  in  this 
wonderful  country  —  the  tropical  forests  on  the  mountain 
sides,  the  many-colored  birds  and  flowers,  and  the  mighty 
ruins  of  buried  races. 

After  the  war  was  ended  Grant  returned  to  St.  Louis,  where 
he  married  Miss  Julia  Dent.  For  a  time  they  were  stationed 
at  Detroit  and  at  Sacketts  Harbor,  New  York,  an  army  post 
on  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Ontario.  From  there  he  wras 
transferred  to  the  Pacific  coast.  It  was  out  of  the  question 
to  take  his  wife  and  young  child  on  the  long  trip  across  the 
continent,  so  they  were  left  with  his  father  in  Ohio.  For 
nearly  three  years  he  was  separated  from  his  family.  Unable 
to  endure  longer  the  loneliness  of  this  separation,  he  resigned 
and  came  home  in  July,  1854.  The  outlook  was  gloomy. 
On  his  meager  pay  as  an  army  officer,  he  had  been  able  to 
save  nothing.  Now,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  with  no  money, 
with  no  profession,  except  the  one  from  which  he  had  just 
resigned,  with  no  practical  business  experience,  and  with  a 
wife  and  children  to  support,  he  had  to  start  life  afresh.  He 
began  as  a  farmer  on  some  land  near  St.  Louis  which  his 
wife's  father  gave  him. 

Here  he  worked  patiently  and  faithfully,  but  the  climate 

MAK  &  DEF.  —  17 


262  GRANT 

was  bad;  he  became  ill  and  was  obliged  to  sell  the  farm.  He 
next  tried  to  establish  himself  as  a  real-estate  agent  in  St. 
Louis,  but  failed.  There  came  a  time  when  he  walked  the 
streets  of  the  city  looking  for  work.  These  were  the  darkest 
days  of  his  life.  Modest,  reticent,  and  unassuming,  he  was 
almost  crushed  by  this  experience.  Other  men  regarded 
him  as  a  failure,  and  he  almost  believed  that  their  judgment 
was  correct.  He  finally  secured  employment  as  a  clerk  in 
his  father's  store  at  Galena,  Illinois,  and  was  there  when 
the  Civil  War  commenced. 

THE   SILENT   GENERAL 

We  must  not  gain  the  impression  that  Grant  failed  in 
business  through  neglect  or  wrong-dealing  on  his  part.  He 
was  frugal  and  industrious,  and  in  all  his  relations  with  others 
honest  and  generous.  But  the  fifteen  years  of  army  life  had 
unfitted  him  for  anything  else. 

While  he  was  a  farmer  and  business  man,  he  watched 
the  country  drift  toward  the  Civil  War.  He  had  lived  in  a  sec- 
tion of  the  country  where  slavery  existed,  and  his  wife's  family 
were  slaveowners.  He  felt  that  a  great  conflict  between  the 
two  sections  of  his  country  was  sure  to  come.  At  once  upon 
the  declaration  of  war,  he  offered  his  services  to  his  country. 
He  refused  the  captaincy  of  a  volunteer  company  in  Galena, 
but  was  soon  appointed  by  Governor  Yates  as  colonel  of  the 
Twenty-first  regiment  of  Illinois  volunteers. 

Grant's  time  had  come;  the  work  he  was  fitted  to  do  was 
before  him.  He  said  little,  but  he  worked  hard.  Soon  his 
regiment  was  a  model  of  discipline  and  efficiency,  and  he  was, 
as  a  result,  promoted  to  a  brigadier  generalship.  The  war  in 
the  West  commenced  now  in  earnest.  The  Confederates 
held  a  strong  defensive  line  extending  from  forts  on  the 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


263 


Mississippi  River  at  Columbus  and  Island  No.  10  eastward 
along  the  border  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  to  the  Cumber- 
land Mountains.  Two  of  the  strongest  positions  on  this 
line  were  Fort  Henry  on  the  Tennessee  River  and  Fort 
Donelson  on  the  Cumberland.  The  capture  of  these  forts 
was  the  first  movement  in  the  Union  campaign  to  gain  con- 


War  in  the  West,  1862 

trol  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Accordingly,  early  in  1862, 
Grant,  in  command  of  the  land  forces,  and  Foote,  in  com- 
mand of  the  gunboats,  moved  against  Fort  Henry. 

The  fleet  silenced  the  guns  of  the  fort,  and  the  Confederate 
forces  withdrew  to  Ft.  Donelson.  Here,  ten  days  later,  after 
desperate  fighting,  they  were  compelled  to  yield.     General 


264  GRANT 

Buckner,  who  was  in  command  of  the  fort,  sent  a  flag  of  truce 
to  Grant,  asking  for  the  terms  of  surrender.  Grant  replied 
in  a  brief  but  famous  note:  "No  terms  except  unconditional 
and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accepted.  I  propose  to 
move  immediately  upon  your  works."  Grant's  soldiers, 
after  this,  used  to  say  that  the  initials  of  his  name  stood  for 
"Unconditional  Surrender"  Grant. 

The  gates  of  these  western  rivers  were  now  open,  and  the 
victorious  Union  army  advanced  over  two  hundred  miles 
into  the  territory  of  the  enemy.  The  Confederates  took  their 
next  stand  along  the  southern  boundary  of  Tennessee,  with 
a  line  of  defense  extending  from  Vicksburg  on  the  Mississippi 
to  Chattanooga  in  the  mountains  of  eastern  Tennessee. 
Both  of  these  positions  were  important.  Chattanooga  con- 
trolled the  gap  through  the  Alleghenies  into  the  fertile  state 
of  Georgia,  and  Vicksburg  overlooked  and  guarded  the 
great  highway  of  travel  along  the  Mississippi  River. 

Against  the  latter  position,  Grant  now  directed  the  move- 
ments of  his  army.  The  South,  gathering  all  its  strength 
under  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,1  one  of  its  ablest  generals, 
endeavored  to  check  this  movement.  The  two  armies  met  at 
Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh  (April  6-7,  1862),  in  one  of  the 
most  bitterly  contested  battles  of  the  Civil  War.  The  South-  • 
erners  were  victorious  on  the  first  day,  but  Grant,  receiv- 
ing reinforcements  during  the  night,  recovered  his  lost 
ground  on  the  next  day  and  drove  them  back.  Soon  after, 
Union  fleets  succeeded  in  taking  New  Orleans  and  Memphis, 
and  the  way  was  open  to  attack  Vicksburg. 

1  A  monument  erected  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans  bears  this  tribute  to 
his  memory:  "A  man  tried  in  many  high  offices  and  critical  enterprises 
and  found  faithful  in  all.  Xo  country  ever  had  a  truer  son,  no  cause  a 
nobler  champion,  no  people  a  bolder  defender  than  the  dead  soldier." 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


265 


The  Confederates  called  this  city  the  "  Gibraltar  of  Amer- 
ica." It  was  situated  on  high  bluffs  along  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the  Southern  government  had 
prepared  extensive  defenses  here  to  guard  the  river.  Its 
possession  was  important  to  them,  for  through  it  they  con- 
trolled the  river  and  brought  supplies  from  the  Confederate 


Besieging  Vicksburg 

states  on  its  western  side.  After  several  failures,  Grant 
succeeded  in  reaching  Vicksburg,  and  twice  endeavored  to 
take  the  city  by  storm. 

Finding  the  Confederates  too  strongly  intrenched  to  be 
captured  in  this  way,  he  determined  to  starve  them  out.  Day 
after  day,  Grant  drew  his  lines  closer.  Week  after  week,  the 
Southern  soldiers  lay  in  their  trenches  and  starved.  The 
fire  from  the  Union  gunboats  and  batteries  was  so  continuous 
and  so  hot  that  the  citizens  of  Vicksburg  were  compelled  to 


266  GRANT 

live  in  caves.  At  last  siege  and  starvation  did  their  work,  and 
on  July  4,  1863,  the  Confederate  forces  surrendered.  When 
the  news  flashed  through  the  North  that  Vicksburg  had  fal- 
len, and  that  the  Confederacy  had  been  cut  in  two,  there  was 
great  rejoicing.  Lincoln  had  said  of  Grant,  "I  can't  spare 
this  man.  He  fights."  The  success  of  the  western  campaign 
proved  the  soundness  of  his  judgment. 

Grant  was  now  placed  in  command  of  all  the  Union  forces 
west  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains.  He  immediately  com- 
menced operations  against  the  Confederates  near  Chatta- 
nooga, and  after  directing  Sherman,  Thomas,  and  Hooker 
in  a  series  of  brilliant  battles,  captured  the  enemy's  positions 
in  the  fall  of  1863.  The  road  into  Georgia  was  now  open, 
ready  for  the  time  when  Sherman  and  his  men  should 
swTeep  in  victory  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta,  and  from 
Atlanta  to  the  sea. 

THE   END   OF   THE  WAR 

These  successes  made  it  clear  that  Grant  was  the  greatest 
general  on  the  Northern  side  that  the  war  had  produced. 
Lincoln  had  been  watching  his  career  in  the  West  with 
increasing  confidence.  He  saw  that  Grant  was  "a  copious 
worker  and  fighter,  but  a  very  meager  writer";  that  he 
always  accomplished  what  he  set  out  to  do.  So  he  summoned 
Grant  to  Washington  and  placed  him  in  command  of  all  the 
Union  forces.  And  from  that  day  there  were  no  military 
orders  from  the  White  House,  for  the  great  President  and  the 
silent  general  understood  and  trusted  each  other.  Lincoln 
had  found  his  man,  and  the  end  of  the  war  was  at  hand. 

Grant's  plan  for  the  conduct  of  the  war  henceforth  was 
simple.  With  his  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  with  Sheridan 
in  command  of  his  cavalry  forces,  he  was  to  keep  hammering 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


267 


Sherman's  Men  destroying  a  Railroad 


away  at  Lee  until  he  had 
utterly  defeated  that 
general  and  had  cap- 
tured Richmond.  His 
trusted  lieutenant,  Sher- 
man, was  to  march 
through  Georgia  to  the 
sea,  thereby  cutting  the 
Confederacy  in  two  again,  and  destroying  the  main  sources 
of  supplies  for  its  armies.  How  these  plans  were  carried  out 
we  shall  now  see.  On  the  4th  of  May,  1864,  Grant  com- 
menced this  twofold  campaign.  The  army  of  the  Potomac, 
which  he  personally  directed,  numbering  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  men,  was  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rapidan  River  in  Virginia.  From  here  he  moved  forward 
to  attack  Lee.  The  two  greatest  generals  of  the  North  and 
the  South  were  for  the  first  time  face  to  face. 

On  the  same  day,  in  fulfillment  of  their  agreement,  Sherman 
began  his  advance  from  Chattanooga  into  Georgia,  nor  did 
he  stop  until  he  had  captured  and  burned  Atlanta  and  had 
offered  Savannah  to  the  President  as  a  Christmas  gift. 


268  GRANT 

As  Grant's  veteran  troops  crossed  the  Rapidan  and  marched 
into  the  Wilderness,  the  soldiers  sang: 

"Ulysses  leads  the  van! 
Ulysses  leads  the  van! 
For  we  will  dare 
To  follow  where 
Ulysses  leads  the  van." 

"We  have  a  general  of  our  own,"  they  said,  "and  we  mean  to 
follow  him  on  to  Richmond."  They  did  so,  but  every  step 
of  the  way  was  stubbornly  contested  by  the  "boys  in  gray." 
Grant  met  in  Lee  an  antagonist  worthy  of  his  utmost  skill. 
Lee  had  been  accustomed  to  Union  generals  who  would  fight 
a  battle  and  then  sit  down  and  rest  —  or  run  away.  But 
this  quiet  little  man  hung  on  with  a  bulldog  grip.  He  never 
knew  when  he  was  beaten.  Grant  once  said,  "The  art 
of  war  is  simple  enough.  Find  out  where  your  enemy  is.. 
Get  at  him  as  soon  as  you  can.  Strike  at  him  as  hard  as  you 
can  and  as  often  as  you  can,  and  keep  moving  on."  This 
was  just  what  he  did  in  the  Wilderness  and  in  the  battles 
which  followed.  "I  propose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it 
takes  all  summer,"  Grant  wrote  to  Lincoln,  and  he  did  not 
rest  until  he  had  driven  Lee  within  the  defenses  of  Rich- 
mond. Then  Grant  followed  the  same  tactics  which  had 
won  him  Vicksburg.  He  drew  his  lines  closely  about  the 
Southern  capital,  and  began  a  stubborn  siege  of  the  city  and 
its  outlying  fortifications. 

Lee  had  been  accustomed,  whenever  danger  threatened 
Richmond,  to  make  a  counter  attack  upon  Washington.  So 
he  sent  General  Jubal  Early  with  the  Confederate  cavalry 
down  the  Shenandoah  valley  to  make  this  attack.  Grant, 
however,  did  not  lessen  his  grip  upon  Richmond,  but  sent 
a    strong    force    under    General    Sheridan    with   orders    to 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


269 


drive  Early  back  and  to  lay  waste  the  valley.  Sheridan 
did  his  task  thoroughly,  although  at  Cedar  Creek  the 
Union  troops  were  surprised  and  driven  back.  Sheridan, 
who  was  at  Winchester,  twenty  miles  away,  heard  the  cannon- 
ading. Mounting  his  horse,  he  rushed  to  the  battle  field. 
As  he  met  his  retreating  soldiers  along  the  road,  he  shouted, 


General  Sheridan's  Ride 

"Turn,  boys,  turn!  We're  going  back!"  Defeat,  by  his 
presence,  was  changed  into  victory,  and  Early  was  sent 
"whirling"  out  of  the  valley. 

By  the  first  of  November,  Grant  had  lost  eighty  thousand 
men  in  the  battles  about  Richmond.  These  men  the  North 
could  replace.  Lee's  losses  had  not  been  so  heavy,  but  he 
had  no  reserves  to  make  them  good,  for  practically  all  the 
Southern  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  were  already  in  the 
Southern  army.  The  war  now  resolved  itself  into  a  question 
of  endurance.  Finally,  Lee's  supplies  were  exhausted,  and 
he  was  forced  to  abandon  Richmond.  With  the  ragged 
remnant  of  his  gallant  army,  he  fled  toward  the  west,  hoping 


270 


GRANT 


to  reach  the  mountains  and  prolong  the  war.  But  human  en- 
durance had  reached  its  limit;  his  men,  wearied,  discouraged, 
and  without  food,  were  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  the  Union 
troops.  So  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  on  the  9th  of  April, 
1865,  he  gave  up  the  unequal  struggle.  Grant,  stern  and 
unyielding  as  a  foe,  now  showed  himself  gentle  and  consider- 
ate as  a  friend.     The  terms  of  surrender  were  as  simple  and 


Lee  and  Grant  discussing  the  Terms  of  Lee's  Surrender 

as  kindly  as  the  character  of  the  man  who  made  them.  The 
Southern  officers  and  men  were  to  retain  their  horses,  bag- 
gage, and  side-arms,  and  to  return  to  their  homes  on  parole. 
"The  men  will  need  their  horses  for  the  spring  plowing," 
Grant  said.  When  Lee  reminded  him  that  the  surrendered 
soldiers  had  nothing  to  eat,  he  ordered  that  rations  and  sup- 
plies be  sent  them  at  once;  and  when  his  men  began  the  fir- 
ing of  salutes  in  honor  of  the  victory,  he  stopped  them,  saying, 
"The  war  is  over;  the  rebels  are  our  countrymen  again." 


PRESIDENT  271 

GRANT,   THE  NATION'S   HERO 

Grant's  kindness  to  the  conquered  foe  was  shown  again 
and  again  in  the  dark  days  following  the  Civil  War.  Instead 
of  marching  in  triumph  into  Richmond  at  the  head  of  his 
victorious  army,  he  hastened  to  Washington  to  take  the  neces- 
sary steps  to  close  the  affairs  of  the  war  as  quickly  and  as 
quietly  as  possible.  Johnson,  succeeding  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent after  the  death  of  Lincoln,  desired  to  arrest  Lee  and 
other  Confederate  generals  in  order  to  have  them  tried  for 
treason.  Grant,  thoroughly  angered,  threatened  to  resign 
from  the  army  if  this  were  done,  and  the  scheme  was  dropped. 

The  whole  nation  loved  and  revered  their  great  hero*  and 
sought  to  reward  him  by  electing  him  as  their  President. 
But  the  two  terms  he  served  in  the  presidential  office  added 
neither  to  his  dignity  nor  to  his  reputation.  He  was  not  a 
statesman;  he  was  not  even  a  politician.  He  was  simply  a 
straightforward,  honest  man  whose  great  gifts  of  mind  and 
body  were  not  along  the  lines  of  statecraft.  So  it  was  with 
a  feeling  of  relief  that  he  became  again  a  private  citizen.  Once 
he  said  of  a  vote  of  thanks  given  him  by  Congress,  "This  is 
the  certificate  given  me  for  being  a  good  boy  in  school." 
It  was  with  something  of  a  boy's  gladness  when  school  days 
are  over  and  playtime  comes,  that  Grant  with  his  wife  made 
a  tour  around  the  world.  He  was  received  everywhere  with 
the  highest  honors.  Upon  his  return,  he  entered  the  banking 
firm  of  Grant  and  Ward. 

Through  the  dishonesty  of  his  partners,  the  enterprise 
failed  and  Grant  found  himself  at  the  age  of  sixty-two  a 
ruined  man.  Fearing  dishonor  more  than  poverty,  he  turned 
all  of  his  property  —  even  the  gifts  which  kings  and  rulers  had 
given  him  when  abroad  —  over  to  his  creditors.     About  the 


272 


GRANT 


same  time  an  incurable  disease  fastened  itself  upon  him. 
With  a  Christian  courage  rarely  equaled  in  the  life  of  any 
man,  he  went  to  work  patiently  to  save  his  good  name  and  to 
provide  for  his  family.  He  had  been  asked  to  write  the  his- 
tory of  his  life,  and  now  undertook  the  task. 

The  greatest  fight  the  brave  soldier  had  ever  had  was 
before  him;  he  must  finish  the  Memoirs  before  death  came. 

The  cancer  in  his  throat 
caused  him  intense  agony, 
yet  he  bore  the  suffering 
uncomplainingly.  For 
hours,  while  stubbornly 
working  at  his  desk,  he 
would  deny  himself  a 
drink  of  water  rather  than 
risk  the  chance  of  special 
pain  in  swallowing  it. 
When  he  became  too 
weak  to  hold  the  pen,  he 
dictated  the  material  for 
his  book.  As  the  disease 
progressed,      his       voice 

Grant's  Tomb,  New  York  failed    him   and   he    ^^ 

speak  only  in  whispers.     Still  he  fought  on  with  the  same, 
dogged  persistence  that  had  won  his  other  battles.     At  last, 
victory  was  his.     The  Memoirs  were  finished,  and  he  had  no 
further  fear  of  death. 

The  end  came  at  Mount  McGregor,  a  beautiful  mountain 
home  overlooking  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  to  which  he  had  been 
removed  in  the  summer  of  1885.  There,  on  the  23d  of  July, 
the  great  general  and  simple-hearted  man  breathed  his  last. 
He  was  laid  to  rest  in  a  beautiful  park  in  the  city  of  New  York, 


PRESIDENT  273 

on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  River.  The  splendid  marble 
tomb  which  a  grateful  country  erected  to  his  memory  marks 
his  last  resting  place.  But  his  most  enduring  monument  is 
in  the  hearts  of  the  nation  he  helped  to  save.  His  simple 
words,  "Let  us  have  peace,"  find  a  response  in  the  heart 
of  every  true  American. 

Topical  Outline.  —  The  ancestry  of  Grant.  His  boyhood  days  and 
life  at  West  Point.  Grant  in  the  regular  army:  his  experiences  in  the 
war  with  Mexico.  His  business  ventures.  Grant  as  a  general  in  the 
Civil  War.  His  campaigns  in  the  West:  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson, 
Shiloh,  Vicksburg,  campaign  in  Tennessee.  His  campaigns  in  the  East: 
crushing  Lee's  army,  kindness  to  the  conquered  foe.  Grant's  later 
life:  as  President;  as  a  private  citizen;  his  greatest  fight.     His  victory. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  paragraph  describing  Grant's  early 
life.  II.  Tell  some  incident  of  Grant's  experiences  in  the  Civil  War. 
III.  Imagine  yourself  living  in  Vicksburg  during  the  siege  of  that  city. 
What  were  your  experiences  there?  IV.  Why  do  you  think  Grant's 
soldiers  loved  him  ?  V.  Tell  in  your  own  words  the  story  of  Sheridan's 
ride.  VI.  Give  some  examples  of  Grant's  kindness  of  heart  and  thought- 
fulness  of  others.    VII.  What  event  of  Grant's  life  do  you  admire  most? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  West  Point  (p.  60),  Monterey,  Mexico  (p.  304), 
Fort  Henry,  Fort  Donelson,  Shiloh  (near  Pittsburg  Landing),  Vicks- 
burg, Appomattox  (p.  252).  . 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Hancock,  "Life  at  West  Point";  Hart  and  Stevens, 
"Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  179-183,  257-259,  189-191. 

Biography.  —  Burton,  "Four  American  Patriots,"  pp.  195-254; 
Brooks,  "Century  Book  of  Famous  Americans,"  pp.  137-191;  Brooks, 
"True  Story  of  Grant";  Grant,  "Personal  Memoirs";  Wister,  "  U.  S. 
Grant  ";  Allen,  "  Ulysses  S.  Grant." 

Poetry.  —  Read,  "Sheridan's  Ride";  Finch,  "The  Blue  and  the 
Gray";  Drake,  "The  American  Flag.' 


ROBERT  E.  LEE,  THE  CAPTAIN  OF  THE 
BOYS  IN  GRAY 

The  three  men  whom  the  Civil  War  made  most  famous 
came  from  entirely  different  classes  of  American  life.  Lin- 
coln, the  martyred  President,  rose  to  his  high  position  from 
the  humblest  circumstances;  his  early  life  was  one  of  toil  and 
privation.  Grant,  the  iron-handed  general,  came  from  the 
great  middle  class  of  America,  the  sinew  and  strength  of  our 
nation.  Lee,  the  gallant  leader  of  the  gray-clad  Southern 
soldiers,  was  descended  from  one  of  Virginia's  aristocratic 
families.  All  of  these  men  wTere  gentlemen  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  term —  kindly,  clean-minded,  and  strong.  Each 
of  them  did  his  work  in  his  own  way  and  did  it  well.  We 
have  read  the  lives  of  Lincoln  and  Grant,  and  we  shall  turn 
now  to  that  of  Lee  in  order  that  we  may  see  through  South- 
ern eyes  what  the  Civil  War  was. 

Robert  Edward  Lee  was  born  at  Stratford,  a  beautiful 
country  home  of  the  Lee  family,  situated  in  the  county  of 
Westmoreland,  Virginia.  His  father  was  General  Henry 
Lee,  whose  daring  deeds  as  a  cavalry  leader  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  had  given  him  the  title  of  "Light  Horse  Harry." 
He  was  a  brave  soldier  and  a  gallant  gentleman,  whose 
friendship  for  Washington  led  him  to  speak  of  the  great 
Virginian  as  "  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts 
of  his  fellow-citizens."  When  Robert  was  four  years  old,  his 
father  moved  to  Alexandria  in  order  to  give  the  children 
better  school  privileges.    Here  his  boyhood  days  were  spent, 

274 


YOUTH 


275 


and  here,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  he  was  the  comfort 
and  support  of  an  invalid  mother.  As  he  grew  to  young  man- 
hood, he  learned  to  ride  well,  to  shoot  straight,  and  always 
to  tell  the  truth. 

At  eighteen  Robert  received  an  appointment  to  West 
Point,  from  which  he  was  graduated  four  years  later  with  the 
second  highest  honors  of  his  class.    He  was  assigned  to  duty 


Lee's  Home,  Arlington 

in  the  Engineer  Corps  of  the  regular  army.  For  years  he 
served  in  this  important  division  of  the  military  branch  of 
our  government,  planning  coast  defenses,  building  levees  on 
the  Mississippi  River,  and  assisting  in  other  engineering  work. 
During  these  busy  years,  he  found  time  to  woo  and  win 
Mary  Randolph  Custis,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Wash- 
ington's adopted  son,  Washington  Park  Custis.  After  their 
marriage  in  1831,  they  made  their  home  in  Arlington,  Mr. 
Custis's  splendid  country  estate  on  the  Potomac  River  within 
sight  of  the  city  of  Washington.  This  mansion,  at  Mr. 
Custis's  death,  became  the  property  of  Mrs.  Lee.  It  was 
the  home  of  the  family  until  the  Civil  War.    The  surround- 


276 


ROBERT   E.    LEE 


ing  grounds  and  estate  are  now  used  as  a  national  cemetery, 
in  which  many  of  the  brave  soldiers  of  that  war  have  their 
last  resting  place. 

Lee  saw  active  service  throughout  the  war  with  Mexico, 
winning  the  highest  praise  from  his  commanders,  and  show- 
ing traits  of  courage  and  of  leadership  that  were  afterwards 

to  make  him  famous. 
A  story  is  told  that 
once  when  Lee  was 
acting  as  a  scout  he 
pushed  too  near  the 
enemy's  line  and  was 
forced  to  lie  hidden  in 
a  hollow  log  while  the 
Mexicans  passed  and 
repassed  his  place  of 
concealment.  In  1852 
Lee  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the 
West  Point  Academy, 
where     he     remained 

John  Brown  at  Harpers  Ferry  ^^    ^        Hjs    SQn 

Custis  Lee  was  a  student  at  the  Academy  during  these  years, 
and  in  the  same  class  with  Custis  was  another  southern  boy 
named  Stuart,  who  afterwards  became  one  of  the  dashing 
cavalry  leaders  of  the  Civil  War. 

In  1859  Lee  was  sent  by  the  government  to  capture  John 
Brown.  Brown  was  a  noted  abolitionist  who  had  shared  in 
the  border  troubles  in  Kansas.  He  conceived  the  idea  that,  by 
arousing  and  arming  the  negroes  in  Virginia,  he  might  hasten 
their  freedom.  With  only  a  handful  of  followers,  he  began 
operations  by  seizing  the  United  States  Arsenal  at  Harpers 


ARMY    OFFICER  277 

Ferry.  Colonel  Lee  was  sent  with  a  company  of  United 
States  marines  to  suppress  the  insurrection.  He  captured 
Brown  and  turned  him  over  to  the  civil  authorities  for  trial. 
The  insurrection  was  in  itself  insignificant,  but  it  was  one  of 
the  many  irritating  causes  of  the  misunderstanding  between 
the  North  and  the  South,  now  rapidly  reaching  an  acute 
state.  Soon  after  this  incident,  Lee  was  sent  to  Texas  to  take 
charge  of  the  government  forces  there.  He  remained  in  this 
position  for  a  year.  Then,  after  Texas  had  joined  the  seces- 
sion movement,  Lee  was  recalled  to  Washington. 

The  war  storm  that  had  so  long  threatened  now  broke. 
Seven  of  the  Southern  states,  following  the  leadership  of 
South  Carolina,  had  already  formed  the  Confederate  States 
of  America  when  Lee  reached  home.  In  the  border  slave- 
holding  states,  however,  there  was  a  strong  sentiment  opposed 
to  secession.  Nowhere  was  this  stronger  than  in  the  great 
commonwealth  of  Virginia.  That  state,  the  mother  of  Pres- 
idents, the  scene  of  so  many  splendid  deeds  of  patriotism, 
hesitated  to  sever  the  bonds  of  a  Union  in  which  she  had 
shared  so  conspicuously  and  so  honorably. 

Her  citizens  still  longed  for  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem. But  the  capture  of  Fort  Sumter,  which  so  aroused 
the  North,  also  unified  Southern  sentiment.  When  it  was 
seen  that  the  government  intended,  at  all  hazards,  to 
prevent  secession,  Virginia^  together  with  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  and  Arkansas,  joined  the  Confederacy.  The  men 
and  women  of  these  border  states  felt  that  their  duty  and  their 
loyalty  should  be  greater  to  their  states  than  to  the  Nation. 

To  Lee,  as  well  as  to  thousands  of  other  men  who  loved  the 
old  Union,  now  came  the  necessity  of  a  choice  between  the 
two  flags.  By  the  advice  of  General  Scott,  President  Lincoln 
offered  Lee  the  command  of  the  United  States  armies.    His 

MAK.  &  DEF.  -  -  18 


278  ROBERT  E.    LEE 

marked  ability  and  experience,  as  well  as  his  conspicuous 
services  in  the  Mexican  war,  eminently  fitted  him  for  this 
high  position.  But,  although  opposing  secession  and  ear- 
nestly praying  that  war  might  be  averted,  he  felt  that  he  could 
take  no  part  in  an  invasion  of  the  Southern  states.  Accord- 
ingly he  refused  Lincoln's  offer  and  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army.  His  only  ambition  now  was  to  remain  a  private 
citizen,  and  to  use  his  influence,  if  possible  to  avert,  war. 

In  a  letter  to  his  sister  he  made  clear  his  position  at 
this  time.  "The  whole  South,"  he  wrote,  "is  in  a  state  of 
revolution,  into  which  Virginia,  after  a  long  struggle,  has 
been  drawn;  and  though  I  recognize  no  necessity  for  this 
state  of  things,  and  would  have  pleaded  to  the  end  for  redress 
of  grievances  real  or  supposed,  yet  I  had  to  meet  the  question 
whether  I  should  take  part  against  my  native  state.  "With  all 
my  devotion  to  the  Union,  and  the  feeling  of  loyalty  and  duty 
of  an  American  citizen,  I  have  not  been  able  to  make  up  my 
mind  to  raise  my  hand  against  my  relatives,  my  children,  my 
home." 

Lee  could  not,  however,  long  maintain  this  neutral  atti- 
tude. The  time  soon  came  when  he  found  it  necessary  to 
fulfill  his  solemn  pledge  to  draw  his  sword  only  in  defense  of 
his  native  state.  The  Virginia  legislature,  at  once  taking 
active  measures  to  repel  the  threatened  invasion,  placed  Lee 
in  command  of  the  military  forces  of  the  state.  The  next 
year  was  spent  by  Lee  in  organizing  troops,  in  a  campaign 
in  West  Virginia,  and  in  caring  for  the  coast  defenses  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  On  the  1st  of  June,  1862,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Army  of  Virginia,  as  the  Southern 
forces  defending  Richmond  were  called,  and  from  that  time 
until  the  close  of  the  war  was  the  most  conspicuous  of  the 
Southern  generals. 


THE    CIVIL    WAR 


279 


THE   EASTERN   CAMPAIGNS   OF    1 862    AND    1 863 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  book  to  give  any  detailed 
account  of  the  many  battles  and  skirmishes  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  general  movements  of  the  opposing  armies  in  the  East 
during  the  years  of   1862   and   1863   should,   however,  be 


The  Virginia  Campaigns  of  1862 


remembered.  The  scene  of  action  was  in  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land. The  Northern  army  was  called  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac; the  Southern,  the  Army  of  Virginia.  The  North  tried 
to  capture  Richmond;  the  South,  to  protect  that  city  and,  by  a 


280  ROBERT   E.    LEE 

counter  attack,  to  threaten  Washington.  So,  each  year, 
there  was  a  determined  effort  to  capture  the  Southern  capital, 
which  was  repelled,  and  which  was  followed  by  an  equally 
vigorous  northern  invasion  by  the  Southern  forces  under  the 
command  of  Lee.  Let  us  now  see  how  these  great  move- 
ments on  the  chessboard  of  war  were  conducted. 

In  the  spring  of  1862  the  Union  forces  were  encamped  on 
the  Potomac  about  Washington,  under  the  command  of 
McClellan.  For  months  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  he  had  been  occupied  in  organizing  his  army  and 
drilling  his  forces,  until  the  phrase  "All  is  quiet  along  the 
Potomac"  grew  tiresome  to  the  people  of  the  North,  who 
wanted  the  Northern  troops  to  move  at  once  against  Rich- 
mond. 

Finally  McClellan  began  active  operations.  Instead  of 
marching  his  troops  overland  across  Virginia,  he  transported 
them  by  boat  to  Fort  Monroe,  at  the  entrance  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  attacked  the  Confederates  at  Yorktown,  and  began 
to  approach  Richmond  from  a  southwesterly  direction. 
This  was  called  the  Peninsular  Campaign,  because  it  was 
fought  on  the  peninsula  between  the  James  and  the  York 
Rivers.  He  reached  a  point  within  ten  miles  of  Richmond, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  defeated  the  Confederates 
under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  Johnston  was  severely 
wounded  in  this  battle,  and  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
Virginia  was  given  to  General  Lee. 

Lee  at  once  took  the  offensive.  In  order  to  relieve  the 
attack  upon  Richmond,  he  sent  General  J.  E.  B.  Stuart 
with  a  large  force  of  Confederate  cavalry  to  cut  off  McClellan' s 
supplies.  General  T.  J.  Jackson,  whose  bravery  at  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run  had  given  him  the  title  of  "Stonewall," 
was  sent  up  the  Shenandoah  valley  to  threaten  Washington, 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


28l 


Stonewall  Jackson 


and  on  his  return  Lee  and  Jackson  attacked  McClellan  in 
what  are  known  as  the  Seven  Days'  Battles  (June  26-July  2, 
1862),  culminating  in  the  battle  of  Malvern  Hill,  where 
the  Confederates  were  repulsed  with 
fearful  slaughter.  The  combined 
movements,  however,  were  success- 
ful. The  siege  of  Richmond  was 
raised,  and  Lee  was  free  to  invade 
the  North. 

Before  troops  from  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  could  be  brought  to 
strengthen  the  Northern  forces  pro- 
tecting Washington,  Lee  fought  and 
won  the  battle  of  Manassas,  on  the 
old  battle  field  of  Bull  Run  (August  29,  1862).  He  then 
pushed  forward  rapidly,  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland, 
and  on  September  17,  1862,  met  the  Northern  forces,  now 
reunited  and  strengthened,  at  Sharpsburg  on  Antietam 
Creek.  It  was  a  drawn  battle,  but  Lee  was  forced  to  with- 
draw across  the  Potomac  and  abandon  his  campaign  of 
invasion.  McClellan  failed  to  press  the  retreating  Southern 
army  as  vigorously  as  the  authorities  in  Washington  desired, 
and  was  removed  from  his  command.  Burnside  was  ap- 
pointed as  his  successor,  and  proved  as  reckless  as  McClellan 
had  been  cautious.  He  attacked  Lee  in  a  strongly  fortified 
position  at  Fredericksburg  (December  13,  1862),  and  met 
with  a  disastrous  defeat.  The  Southern  army  now  went 
into  winter  quarters,  and  the  Eastern  campaign  of  1862 
ended  with  no  advantage  on  either  side. 

The  first  general  engagement  between  the  opposing 
armies  in  1863  was  fought  at  Chancellorsville  (May  2-3, 
1863),  and  here  Lee  won  a  brilliant  victory  over  "Fighting 


282 


ROBERT   E.    LEE 


A 


At  Chancellorsville 

Joe"  Hooker,  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  In 
this  battle,  however,  Lee  lost  his  most  able  general,  Stone- 
wall Jackson.  Jackson  had  been  an  important  factor  in  all 
of  these  campaigns.  At  Manassas,  at  Antietam,  and  at 
Fredericksburg,  he  had  been  Lee's  "right  arm."  A  man  of 
lofty  moral  principles,  of  stern  devotion  to  duty,  like  the 
Puritans  of  old,  of  boundless  courage,  and  of  great  personal 
influence  over  his  men,  Jackson  was  a  soldier  whom  the  Con- 
federacy could  not  replace. 

Lee's  second  invasion  of  the  North  now  began.  His  troops, 
flushed  with  victory,  singing  "Maryland,  my  Maryland"  as 
they  marched  across  that  state,  pushed  forward  into  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  North  was  thoroughly  alarmed,  for  it  was  the 
first  time  a  considerable  body  of  Southern  troops  had  reached 
any  of  the  Northern  states.  All  sorts  of  vague  and  terrifying 
rumors  swept  over  the  country.  "  Lee  was  to  attack  Harris- 
burg;  his  army  might  capture  and  destroy  Philadelphia  or  even 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


283 


New  York;  Southern 
sympathizers  in 
Northern  cities  were  to 
aid  him  by  mob  force." 
That  these  rumors 

had  no  serious  founda-  Pickett's  Charge  at  Gettysburg 

tion  in  fact  did  not  lessen  the  feeling  of  alarm.  However, 
the  daring  invasion  of  Lee's  army  was  checked  on  the  battle 
field  of  Gettysburg,  in  southern  Pennsylvania,  July  1-3,  1863. 
After  a  fearful  struggle  lasting  three  days,  Lee  was  turned 
back.  One  of  the  thrilling  incidents  of  this  battle,  the  great- 
est of  the  Civil  War,  was  the  charge  of  fifteen  thousand  sol- 
diers, the  flower  of  the  Confederate  army,  under  General 
Pickett.  In  a  last  desperate  attempt  to  turn  the  tide  of  battle, 
Lee  hurled  these  men  against  the  Union  intrenchments  on 


284  ROBERT   E.    LEE 

Cemetery  Ridge.  Crossing  a  mile  of  open  ground  under  a 
most  terrific  fire,  they  reached  the  Union  lines,  and  in  a  hand 
to  hand  struggle  were  driven  back.  The  history  of  the  war 
records  no  more  superb  courage  or  greater  devotion  to  a  lost 
cause  than  that  shown  by  Pickett's  men  in  their  famous 
charge.  A  monument  now  marks  the  spot  where  the  Con- 
federates were  repulsed.  It  bears  the  inscription,  "  Highwater 
Mark  of  the  Rebellion,"  and  history  confirms  its  verdict. 

The  loss  of  life  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  appalling. 
Nearly  fifty  thousand  men,  the  best  blood  of  America,  fell  on 
that  battle  field.  The  men  whom  Lee  lost  could  never  be 
replaced.  He  was  forced  to  retreat,  and  he  never  made 
another  attempt  to  invade  the  North.  The  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac followed  the  retreating  Southern  forces  into  Virginia, 
and  for  the  remainder  of  the  year  no  movements  of  impor- 
tance took  place  there.  The  two  armies  then  went  into  winter 
quarters,  facing  each  other,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rappahan- 
nock and  Rapidan  rivers. 

When  spring  came,  both  sides  girded  themselves  for  the 
final  struggle.  A  new  general  was  now  in  command  of  the 
Northern  armies.  Grant,  the  hero  of  the  West,  had  been 
summoned  to  Washington  to  put  down  the  rebellion  and  to 
restore  peace  to  the  nation. 

The  Southern  leaders  knew  that  this  simple,  silent  man 
would  fight  until  the  end,  and  they  made  desperate  efforts  to 
strengthen  Lee's  army.  Every  able-bodied  man  in  the  South 
between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  fifty  was  summoned  for 
military  duty.  The  campaign  commenced  early  in  May,  when 
Grant  began  his  advance.  Back  of  him  were  the  vast  re- 
sources of  the  North,  while  Lee  had  the  advantage  of  fighting 
on  the  defensive  in  a  country  with  which  he  was  thoroughly 
familiar. 


THE    CIVIL    WAR 


285 


In    a    desolate,    fire- 
scarred  jungle  called  the 
"Wilderness,"  south  of  the 
■J   Rapidan  River,  the  armies 
s#   met,  and  for  nearly  two  weeks 
the  opposing  forces  struggled. 
Grant's  plan  was  to  get  between 
Lee's  army  and  Richmond.     Lee, 
who  was  a  master  in  defensive  war- 
fare, prevented  every  flanking  move- 
ment, but  was  obliged  to  fall  back  each 
time  to  a  new  line  of  defense.    While 
Grant  was  fighting   his  way  out  of  the 
Wilderness,    Lee   was  told   that    he   was 
retreating.      "You    are    mistaken,"     Lee 
replied,  "quite  mistaken;  Grant  isn't  a  retreating  man." 

Finally,  the  Confederate  forces  were  pushed  back  to  the 
fortifications  about  Richmond.  One  of  the  most  important 
outposts  of  that  city  was  Petersburg,  south  of  the  Con- 
federate capital.  This  Grant  attacked,  but,  finding  it  too 
strongly  fortified  to  be  taken  by  storm,  he  began  a  siege.  For 
nine  months  Lee  and  his  devoted  men  withstood  all  assaults, 


Siege  of  Petersburg 


286  ROBERT  E.    LEE 

but  sickness  and  starvation  did  their  work  at  last.  When  the 
thin  gray  line  under  Lee  could  hold  out  no  longer,  Petersburg 
fell,  April  2,  1865.  The  next  day  the  Confederates  abandoned 
Richmond,  and  the  Union  forces  took  possession  of  the  city. 
With  the  downfall  of  the  Confederate  capital  the  war  was 
practically  ended,  for  Lee  was  forced  soon  after  to  surrender 
to  the  superior  forces  under  Grant. 

The  scene  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  when  Lee  bade 
farewell  to  his  troops  after  he  had  surrendered,  was  touching 
and  pathetic. 

For  years  they  had  followed  "  Uncle  Robert,"  as  they 
affectionately  called  him,  through  dangers  and  privations, 
and  they  sobbed  in  anguish  when  he  told  them  that  the 
struggle  was  over.  "  Men,"  he  said,  "  we  have  fought  through 
the  war  together.  I  have  done  my  best  for  you.  My  heart  is  too 
full  to  say  more."  Then  he  mounted  his  gray  war  horse, 
Traveler,  and  rode  back  to  his  home  and  his  family. 

Now  that  the  great  conflict  was  ended,  Lee  retired  to  pri- 
vate life,  and  bravely  set  about  repairing  his  shattered  for- 
tunes. He  was  offered  employment  and  a  large  salary  in 
several  business  enterprises,  but  refused  to  accept  any  posi- 
tion for  which  he  felt  himself  unfitted.  Finally  he  was  elected 
president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington,  Virginia, 
afterward  re-named  Washington  and  Lee  University.  This 
call  he  accepted,  saying,  "I  have  led  the  young  men  of  the 
South  to  battle;  I  have  seen  many  of  them  fall  under  my 
standard.  I  shall  devote  my  life  now  to  training  young  men 
to  do  their  duty  in  life." 

To  this  self-imposed  task,  he  gave  himself  with  all  the 
energy  of  his  great  nature.  His  exposure  during  the  war,  how- 
ever, had  sapped  his  vitality,  and  five  years  later,  on  the  12th 
of  October,  1870,  he  died.    Some  one  has  said  of  Lee:  "He 


COLLEGE   PRESIDENT  287 

was  a  foe  without  hate  and  a  friend  without  treachery,  a  sol- 
dier without  cruelty  and  a  victim  without  murmuring.  He 
was  a  public  officer  without  vice,  a  private  citizen  without 
wrong,  a  neighbor  without  reproach,  a  Christian  without 
hypocrisy,  and  a  man  without  guilt." 

In  this  summary  of  his  virtues  a  reunited  country  now 
agrees.  We  wish  to  remember  him  as  a  Christian  gentle- 
man, beloved  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  a  noble  example 
of  a  great  American. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Three  types  of  American  citizens.  Lee's  an- 
cestry and  education.  His  life  in  the  army  prior  to  the  Civil  War. 
The  movement  toward  secession.  Lee's  services  in  the  Civil  War. 
(a)  The  Eastern  campaign  of  1862;  (b)  The  eastern  campaign  of  1863. 
The  final  struggle  with  Grant.    Lee  as  a  private  citizen. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Tell   of   Lee's   early   life   and   education. 

II.  Write  a  paragraph   about  his  reasons  for  loyalty  to   his   state. 

III.  Describe  one  of  Lee's  campaigns.  IV.  Write  the  names  of  the 
leading  generals  on  the  Southern  side  in  the  Civil  War.  V.  Whom  do 
you  consider  the  greater  general,  Lee  or  Grant?     Why? 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Alexandria,  Richmond,  Malvern  Hill,  Manas- 
sas, Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  Petersburg. 

Collateral  Reading 
Biography.  —  Williamson,  "The  Life  of  Lee";  Cooke,  " Robert  E. 
Lee";  Lee,  " General  Lee." 


ADMIRAL  FARRAGUT  AND  THE  WORK  OF  THE 

NAVY 


The  navy  as  well  as  the  army  had  important  work  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  among  the  commanders  were  many  brave 
men.    One  of  the  most  famous  was  Admiral  Farragut. 


Statue  of  Farragut,  New  York 

The  father  of  Farragut  was  a  Spanish  gentleman  who  came 

to  this  country  in  1776  and  served  as  major  of  cavalry  in  the 

288 


YOUTH  289 

Revolutionary  War.  He  married  and  settled  in  eastern  Ten- 
nessee, where  in  1801  David  Glasgow  Farragut  was  born. 
Soon  after  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  the  Farraguts  moved  to 
the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans. 

One  day  in  1808,  while  fishing  on  Lake  Pontchartrain, 
Farragut  found  an  old  man  prostrated  by  the  heat.  He  took 
him  home  and  found  that  he  was  David  Porter,  a  sailing 
master  and  father  of  Captain  David  Porter,  who  became 
prominent  in  the  War  of  1812.  Porter  was  very  sick  at  the 
Farragut  home  for  several  weeks.  Mrs.  Farragut,  who  ten- 
derly cared  for  him,  died  just  before  his  death,  and  the  funeral 
of  both  occurred  on  the  same  day. 

The  old  gentleman's  son,  Captain  Porter,  felt  so  grateful  to 
the  Farraguts  for  their  kindness,  and  so  sorry  for  the  mother- 
less children,  that  he  asked  to  adopt  young  David.  He  took 
the  boy  north  and  placed  him  in  school. 

When  but  eight  years  of  age,  David  said  that  he  wanted  to 
enter  the  navy.  Soon  after  going  north,  Captain  Porter  took 
the  lad  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  who  was  pleased  with  the 
boy  and  promised  him  a  midshipman's  warrant.  Although 
he  was  appointed  in  December,  1810,  he  remained  at  school 
until  the  following  August,  when  with  Captain  Porter  he 
joined  the  Essex. 

Life  on  the  Essex  wras  good  training  for  the  future  admiral. 
The  best  of  discipline  was  maintained  on  board  ship.  The 
chaplain,  who  was  the  midshipman's  schoolmaster,  took 
particular  interest  in  young  David,  and  did  much  more  for 
him  than  merely  hearing  him  recite.  The  boy  soon  shared  in 
exciting  experiences,  for  war  with  England  was  declared  the 
following  spring. 

The  Essex  made  a  long  cruise  to  the  Mediterranean,  then 
back  around  Cape  Horn  to  the  Pacific,  capturing  British 


29O  DAVID   G.    FARRAGUT 

prizes.  She  had  taken  eleven  British  whalers  in  the  Pacific 
when  Captain  Porter  received  word  that  three  English  ships 
were  on  their  way  to  capture  or  destroy  him. 

Early  in  February,  1814,  the  Essex,  with  some  prize  ships, 
entered  the  neutral  harbor  of  Valparaiso  (the  chief  port  of 
Chile,  in  South  America),  followed  a  little  later  by  the  two 
English  ships,  the  Phosbe  and  the  Cherub,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Hillyer,  a  personal  friend  of  Captain 
Porter.  The  American  ships  had  the  better  position,  but 
circumstances  did  not  warrant  Captain  Porter's  opening 
an  action  with  apparently  friendly  visitors. 

After  several  days,  in  which  Captain  Porter  was  puzzled 
about  the  Englishman's  purpose,  a  heavy  gale  broke  the  top- 
mast off  the  Essex  and  severed  her  cable  chains.  The  ship 
was  so  badly  disabled  that  she  could  not  put  to  sea.  The 
English  ships  then  made  an  attack.  They  were  armed  with 
long-range  guns,  that  sent  a  small  ball  with  great  force;  while 
the  American  ships  had  short-range  guns,  firing  larger  shot 
with  less  speed.  These  could  do  great  damage,  but  in  order 
to  use  them  the  ship  must  be  able  to  move  freely.  As  it  was, 
the  Essex  was  so  crippled  that  the  English  ships  could  easily 
get  out  of  her  range,  while  their  long  guns  in  two  hours  com- 
pelled Captain  Porter  to  strike  his  colors. 

David  Farragut,  not  yet  thirteen,  was  in  the  thick  of  this 
terrible  fight,  but  escaped  unharmed.  Young  as  he  was,  he 
was  regarded  as  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  was  formally  ex- 
changed a  few  months  later  after  returning  to  New  York. 

He  then  attended  a  private  school  in  Chester,  Pennsylvania, 
until  after  peace  was  made  with  England.  In  the  spring  of 
1816,  he  was  ordered  to  Washington  for  a  trip  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. His  journal  mentions  visits  to  the  cities  of  the  Bar- 
bary  coasts,  Sicily,  and  Italy.    The  Rev.  Charles  Folsom  was 


THE   CIVIL   WAR  29 1 

the  chaplain,  and  found  Farragut  an  apt  pupil.  In  the 
autumn  of  181 7,  Mr.  Folsom  was  appointed  consul  to  Tunis, 
and  asked  that  David  be  permitted  to  spend  the  winter  with 
him,  to  continue  his  studies.  This  companionship  with  Mr. 
Folsom  was  most  valuable  to  Farragut. 

He  was  regularly  promoted,  and  had  most  interesting  expe- 
riences, among  which  was  the  command  of  the  Brandywine  to 
take  Lafayette  home  in  1826.  For  lack  of  space  we  must  pass 
over  many  years  of  his  life.  After  California  was  added  to 
the  Union,  Farragut  was  sent  to  San  Francisco  to  build  a 
navy  yard,  and  remained  four  years  in  charge  of  Mare  Island 
navy  yard,  in  San  Francisco  Bay.  In  1858  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  captain,  then  the  highest  grade  in  the  navy,  and 
was  given  command  of  the  Brooklyn,  our  first  steam  war  ship. 

In  October,  i860,  he  returned  to  his  home  at  Norfolk,  Vir- 
ginia. Trying  days  followed.  Lincoln  was  elected,  and  the 
Southern  states  seceded.  Farragut  was  born  in  a  Southern 
state,  for  many  years  his  home  had  been  in  Virginia,  and 
many  of  his  personal  friends  were  in  sympathy  with  the 
South.  But  when  Virginia  joined  the  Confederacy  in  1861, 
Farragut  moved  his  family  to  New  York  state,  and  offered 
his  services  to  the  government  to  help  preserve  the  Union. 

Early  in  the  war  the  government  decided  to  get  possession 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  plan  provided  for  an  army 
and  a  fleet  of  gunboats  to  force  their  way  down  the  river, 
while  at  the  same  time  an  entrance  was  to  be  made  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  latter  task  was  committed  to 
Farragut,  then  about  sixty  years  of  age. 

New  Orleans  is  ninety  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Seventy-five  miles  below  the  city  were  two  forts  on  opposite 
banks,  just  below  which  heavy  chain  cables,  attached  to 
hulks  of  old  boats,  crossed  the  river.    Between  the  forts  and 


292 


DAVID    G.    FARRAGUT 


SCALE  OF  MILES   °_ 


the  city  was  a  fleet  of  Confederate  war  vessels,  which  fur- 
nished the  only  communication  between  the  two. 

Farragut  had  twenty-five  men-of-war,  and  twenty  mortar 

boats  under  Captain  Porter, 
the  son  of  his  foster  father. 
An  army  under  General  But- 
ler was  ready  to  cooperate 
with  him.  Farragut  decided 
to  run  past  the  forts  and  de- 
stroy the  fleet;  then,  with 
Butler's  army,  the  forts  and 
Xew  Orleans  could  be  taken. 
By  a  daring  and  clever  bit 
of   work,   the  chain   cables 

New  Orleans  and  Vicinity  were  cutj  ancJ  the  current  of 

the  river  drove  the  obstacles  toward  the  shore  and  out  of 
the  way. 

The  mortar  boats,  covered  with  branches  of  trees,  kept  near 
the  river  banks  and  crept  up  the  stream  undetected,  until 
they  got  within  good  range  of  the  forts.  Then  for  six  days  the 
guns  from  these  boats  hurled  shell  thick  and  fast  into  the 
forts.  The  guns  in  the  forts  were  fired  at  random,  for  the 
mortar  boats  could  not  be  sighted.  The  Confederate  fleet 
sent  down  fire  rafts,  but  they  were  intercepted,  hauled  out 
of  the  way,  and  beached. 

At  two  o'clock  on  an  April  morning  in  1862,  Farragut's 
fleet  formed  in  line  and  steamed  up  the  river  past  the  forts. 
They  formed  an  ever  varying  mark,  and  the  shots  from  the  forts 
did  not  often  hit.  Then  the  Confederate  fleet  came  to  meet 
them.  A  battle  between  the  two  fleets  raged  for  five  hours, 
when  all  was  over,  and  Farragut  moved  up  the  river  to  New 
Orleans.     The  city  was  taken  with  little  resistance  save  a 


THE    CIVIL   WAR 


293 


stubborn  determination  not  to  lower  the  flag  over  the  city 
hall.  A  little  later  the  forts  surrendered.  Farragut  remained 
on  the  river  until  the  fall  of  Vicksburg,  in  1863.  His 
achievements  entitled  him  to  first  place  on  the  list  of  pro- 
posed admirals. 

In  August,  1864,  Farragut  was  sent  to  open  Mobile  Bay. 
An  island  lies  at  the  entrance,  and  the  channels  on  both  sides 


Fight  in  Mobile  Bay 

were  well  fortified.    Farragut  lashed  his  ships  in  pairs,  and 

passed  these  forts  rapidly,  firing  broadsides.    In  order  to  see 

above  the  smoke,  he  climbed  up  under  the  maintop  of  his 

ship.    One  of  his  men,  fearing  he  might  lose  his  footing,  sent 

a  seaman  up  to  tie  him  to  the  rigging.    Farragut  consented, 

for,  as  he  replied,  he  could  then  use  his  field  glasses  more 

easily. 

MAK.  &  def.  —  19 


294  NAVAL  HEROES 

When  once  past  the  entrance,  the  light  in  the  bay  was  short 
but  at  first  very  uncertain,  because  of  the  monster  ram,  Ten- 
nessee. This  was  finally  compelled  to  surrender  by  several  of 
Farragut's  boats  closing  in  around  her.  This  victory  gave 
Mobile  Bay  to  the  federal  government;  but  the  city  of  Mo- 
bile, thirty  miles  above,  was  not  taken  until  the  next  spring. 

In  July,  1866,  Farragut  was  the  first  American  to  be  created 
an  admiral,  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  Captain  Porter, 
who  aided  him  at  New  Orleans,  succeeded  to  the  title  on 
Admiral  Farragut's  death  in  1870. 

Admiral  Farragut  was  a  good  man  as  well  as  a  great  com- 
mander. As  a  mere  child  he  was  a  favorite  on  board  ship,  and 
as  a  man  he  was  loved  by  all  under  his  command,  and  was 
often  spoken  of  as  "Little  Luff."  What  he  wrote  his  wife  on 
entering  Mobile  Bay  shows  his  character  well:  "I  am  going 
into  Mobile  in  the  morning,  if  God  is  my  leader,  as  I  hope  he 
is,  and  in  him  I  place  my  trust." 

Other  Naval  Exploits 

There  were  other  brilliant  exploits  under  brave  com- 
manders, among  whom  were  Lieutenant  Worden  of  the 
Monitor,  Captain  Winslow  of  the  Kearsarge,  and  Lieutenant 
Cushing,  who  destroyed  the  ram  Albemarle. 

Early  in  1862,  the  Confederates  covered  an  old  warship 
with  iron  plates  and  sent  it  out  to  attack  federal  ships. 
This  ironclad  is  famous  as  the  Merrimac,  and,  although 
seamen  laughingly  called  it  a  Quaker  meetinghouse,  for  a 
time  it  was  the  best  ship  afloat. 

The  Merrimac  at  Hampton  Roads  had  one  day  sunk  the 
Cumberland  and  the  Congress,  and  intended,  the  next  day,  to 
dispose  of  the  Minnesota,  but  when  she  was  about  to  attack 
the  latter,  a  queer-looking  little  boat  slipped  out  from  behind, 


THE    CIVIL   WAR  295 

and  replied  with  heavy  balls.  The  Confederates  at  first 
jeered  at  what  they  called  "A  Yankee  cheese-box  on  a  raft," 
but  very  soon  they  realized  that  the  little  ironclad  Monitor 
was  a  worthy  opponent. 

The  boats  advanced,  backed,  and  dashed  at  each  other, 
continually  firing  shot  that  rolled  off  with  little  damage.  The 
Monitor  began  to  gain  the  advantage.  Then  a  well-directed 
shell  struck  her  pilot  house,  where  Lieutenant  Worden  stood 
directing  the  battle.  Flakes  of  iron  and  powder  were  driven 
into  his  face  and  eyes.  The  Monitor  then  withdrew,  and  the 
Merrimac  was  glad  to  bring  the  engagement  to  an  end. 

When  lying  on  a  couch  in  the  cabin,  blinded  and  in  great 
suffering,  Lieutenant  Worden  asked,  "Have  I  saved  the 
Minnesota?"  Wlien  told  that  he  had,  he  replied,  "Then  I 
die  happy."  But  he  did  not  die.  He  recovered  his  sight  and 
his  health,  and  served  the  government  for  twenty  years  longer. 

Captain  Winslow  and  the  Alabama 

The  Confederates  made  heroic  efforts  to  break  the  blockade, 
not  only  to  carry  on  trade  with  Europe,  but  to  destroy  North- 
ern merchant  vessels.  One  of  the  famous  vessels  in  this  serv- 
ice was  the  Alabama,  built  in  England.  The  Alabama  had 
captured  sixty-six  merchant  vessels  when  Captain  Winslow 
of  the  Kearsarge  caught  her  in  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg, 
on  the  north  coast  of  France. 

The  Alabama  was  compelled  to  fight.  The  engagement 
took  place  three  or  four  miles  from  the  coast,  and  was  wit- 
nessed by  many  English  and  French  people.  Since  the 
Kearsarge  and  the  Alabama  were  about  equal  in  fitness,  the 
fight  was  hard  and  fair.  Both  sides  showed  much  skill, 
but  in  the  end  the  Alabama  had  to  strike  her  flag.  The 
ship  soon  sank,  while  her  captain  escaped  to  an  English  ship. 


296 


NAVAL   HEROES 


The  Alabama  and  the  Kearsarge 


Lieutenant  Cushing  and  the  Albemarle 

One  of  the  youngest  officers  to  attain  distinction  by  a  val- 
iant piece  of  work  was  Lieutenant  Cushing,  but  twenty-two 
years  of  age.  The  Confederates  had  an  ironclad  ram,  the  Al- 
bemarle, that  had  done  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  Federal  ship- 
ping. This  boat  had  the  advantage  of  speed,  and  could  also 
run  in  water  too  shallow  for  war  vessels  of  the  regular  pattern. 

The  ram  lay  anchored  in  the  Roanoke  River,  near  the  city 
of  Plymouth,  North  Carolina,  eight  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  in  October,  1864.  Lieutenant  Cushing,  eager  for 
daring  work,  begged  permission  to  attempt  to  destroy  her. 
With  a  dozen  men  in  a  launch  one  dark  night  he  slipped  up 
the  river,  unseen  until  a  few  yards  from  the  Albemarle.  He 
had  everything  in  readiness,  and  just  as  the  shots  from  the 
ram  shattered  his  launch,  a  torpedo  exploded  by  Cushing 
blew  up  the  Albemarle. 

Cushing  shouted  to  his  men  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and, 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


297 


as  his  boat  sank,  he  swam  down  stream.  Half  an  hour  later, 
nearly  exhausted,  he  crawled  through  a  swamp  and  found  a 
negro's  cabin,  where  he  got  food  and  shelter  for  a  few  hours 
rest.  He  then  started  out,  captured  a  skiff  from  a  rebel 
picket,  and  before  night  had  reached  his  fleet  in  safety. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Farragut:  birth  and  descent.  Adopted  by  Cap- 
tain Porter.  Taken  north  and  became  midshipman.  The  fight  of  the 
Essex.  Mediterranean  cruises.  Built  navy  yard  at  San  Francisco. 
Battle  of  New  Orleans.  Opened  Mobile  Bay.  Character.  Other 
famous  naval  officers  in  the  Civil  War:  Worden,  Winslow,  Cushing. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Imagine  you  were  young  Farragut,  and 
write  an  account  of  the  battle  of  the  Essex.  II.  Write  on  the  importance 
of  controlling  the  Mississippi  River  during  the  war.  III.  Tell  the  story 
of  Lieutenant  Cushing  and  the  Albemarle. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Valparaiso  (p.  328);  Mare  Island  (near  San 
Francisco),  New  Orleans,  Mobile  Bay,  Plymouth,  N.  C.  (p.  304);  Cher- 
bourg. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Hart  and  Stevens,  "Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  171- 
179,  S^ttiS*  347-379;  Hai*t,  "Source  Book,"  pp.  313-315. 

Biography.  —  Beebe,  "Four  American  Naval  Heroes,"  pp.  133- 
192,  201-254;  Mahan,  "Admiral  Farragut";  Barnes,  "Midshipman 
Farragut." 


Loading  a  Naval  Cannon  in  the  Civil  War 


CLARA  BARTON  AND  THE  RED  CROSS 
SOCIETY 

As  soon  as  President  Lincoln  called  for  volunteers  in  1861, 
groups  of  women  in  Northern  cities  and  towns  began  to  make 
an  effort  to  give  relief  and  comfort  to  the  soldiers.  They  met 
together  to  sew.  They  prepared  bandages  and  made  "com- 
fort bags,"  and  sent  them  to  the  army. 

In  June,  the  Sanitary  Commission  was  organized  and  given 
the  right  to  work  in  the  camps  and  on  the  battle  fields.  These 
men  and  women  realized  that  soldiers  cannot  win  battles 
when  they  are  sick,  and  that  as  great  efforts  should  be  made 
to  prevent  sickness  as  to  care  for  the  wounded.  They  sent  to 
the  soldiers  printed  circulars  that  gave  directions  about  keep- 
ing their  clothes  and  the  camps  clean,  and  also  warned  them 
about  drinking  water  and  the  care  of  food.  When  it  was 
found  that  much  sickness  could  be  prevented  by  furnishing 
the  soldiers  vegetables  to  eat,  farmers  through  the  North  and 
West  shipped  to  the  front  carloads  of  potatoes  and  onions. 

Very  early  in  the  war  came  the  call  for  nurses,  and  many 

young  women  responded.    Among  these  were  Dorothy  Dix 

and  Mary  Livermore,  whose  services  will  long  be  remembered. 

Even  an  untrained  woman  was  of  great  help  in  the  hospitals 

as  she  went  from  cot  to  cot,  giving  a  drink  of  water  to  one 

patient,  a  fresh  handkerchief  to  another,  and  a  word  of  cheer 

here  and  there.    At  meal  time  many  of  the  sick  ones  had  to  be 

fed,  and  some  wanted  letters  written  home.    At  all  times  the 

surgeons  and  the  skilled  nurses  were  very  busy  dressing 

wounds  and  caring  for  the  serious  cases. 

298 


THE   CIVIL  WAR  299 

Of  all  the  brave  women  who  gave  themselves  to  this  work 
the  greatest  is  known  to  the  world  to-day  as  Clara  Barton. 
She  was  a  Massachusetts  woman  of  thirty  or  more, 
and  was  in  the  Patent  Office  in  Washington  when  the  war 
broke  out.  Seeing  the  great  needs  of  the  first  troops,  and 
the  difficulties  of  the  government  in  supplying  them,  she 
offered  her  salary,  but  the  government  could  not  accept  it. 

Finding  no  way  of  contributing,  and  unwilling  to  draw  her 
salary,  she  resigned  her  position  and  went  to  the  field  to  care 
for  the  sick  and  wounded,  even  before  the  organization  of  the 
Sanitary  Commission.  This  drew  the  attention  of  the  North- 
ern people,  who,  finding  a  way  of  getting  supplies  direct  to 
their  soldiers,  commenced  to  send  them  to  her  in  such 
quantities  as  to  require  storage.  The  government  gave 
her  trains  and  men  for  transportation,  and  such  information 
as  was  proper,  concerning  possible  engagements.  In  this 
way,  her  supplies  were  first  at  a  battle,  often  holding  in 
check  the  most  terrible  needs,  till  regular  relief  came.  On 
some  expeditions  she  had  ten  army  wragons  of  supplies, 
with  sixty  mules  and  drivers.  In  this  way,  she  went  through 
the  four  years  of  war,  often  remaining  months  at  the  field 
with  no  shelter  but  her  wagons  and  tents. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  the  army  rolls  showed  that  sixty 
thousand  men  were  "missing."  President  Lincoln  author- 
ized her  to  make  a  search  to  learn  their  probable  fate.  She 
and  her  helpers  gained  information  of  about  twenty  thou- 
sand. Through  this  search  the  government  learned  of  the 
condition  of  the  dead  buried  at  Andersonville  prison.  Miss 
Barton  was  then  sent  to  identify  and  mark  the  graves  of 
the  thirteen  thousand  soldiers  buried  there.  Their  burial 
place,  covering  fifty  acres  of  ground,  is  known  to-day  as  the 
"Cemetery  of  the  Union  Dead  at  Andersonville. " 


3°° 


CLARA   BARTON 


Broken  in  health,  she  went  to  Europe  in  1869  for  needed 
rest,  but  the  war  between  France  and  Germany  called  her 
again  to  the  field,  to  serve  with  the  Red  Cross  Society  at  all 
the  greatest  battles  from  the  Rhine  to  Paris.  Returning  to 
America,  where  the  Red  Cross  had  never  been  heard  of,  she 

set  to  work  to  make 

known  to  our  govern- 
ment the  principles 
of  the  society  for  the 
relief  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  in  war.  Af- 
ter six  years  of  labor 
at  her  own  expense, 
she  succeeded  in  get- 
ting our  government 
to  cooperate  with  the 
International  Red 
Cross.  On  President 
Garfield's  suggestion, 
she  became  president 
of  the  American  Red 
Cross,  and  held  that 
position  until  1904, 
when  she  resigned. 

The  flag,  a  red 
cross  on  a  white 
ground,  is  recognized 
and  respected  as  neutral  in  time  of  war.  All  nurses  and  repre- 
sentatives wear  the  red  cross  arm  badge,  and  the  field  hospital 
must  show,  with  this  red  cross,  the  national  flag  as  well.  It  is 
always  the  practice  of  the  Red  Cross  in  time  of  war  to  care 
for  friend  and  enemv  alike. 


Clara  Barton 


THE   RED   CROSS  3OI 

By  consent  of  foreign  nations,  Miss  Barton  added  to  the 
work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  America,  the  relief  of  great 
disasters  in  civil  life,  as  from  fire,  flood,  and  famine.  This 
is  known  as  the  ''American  Amendment/'  She  was  always 
present  with  her  helpers  in  such  disasters  as  the  Mississippi 
and  Ohio  floods,  the  Johnstown  and  Galveston  floods,  and 
the  Russian  famine;  some  twenty  in  as  many  years.  Dur- 
ing all  this  time  not  a  dollar  was  drawn  from  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States  for  relief  of  disasters,  and,  except  in  the 
time  of  the  Cuban  War,  no  appeal  for  money  was  ever 
made  to  the  public.  As  none  of  the  officers  of  the  Red  Cross 
receive  salaries,  the  freewill  offerings  of  the  people  were 
sufficient. 

At  over  eighty,  still  well  and  active,  Miss  Barton  has 
organized  and  nationalized  the  work  of  the  "  First  Aid  to  the 
Injured  in  America,"  of  which  she  is  president.  This,  as  she 
says,  is  a  movement  in  which  even  school  children  may  learn 
to  lessen  the  sufferings  of  others.  Miss  Barton's  home  at 
present  is  at  Glen  Echo,  Maryland. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Sanitary  Commission.  Nurses  and  their  work. 
Clara  Barton  in  the  Civil  War.  The  Red  Cross  and  its  work.  Later 
services  of  Clara  Barton. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Suppose  you  were  a  Civil  War  nurse,  and 
write  a  letter  giving  your  experience.  II.  Write  imaginary  experiences 
in  a  field  hospital  during  the  Cuban  War. 

Collateral  Reading 
History.  —  Hart  and  Stevens,  "Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  381- 
393;  395-403;   4i3-4i8. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  AND 
DEVELOPMENT 

When  the  Civil  War  was  over,  two  important  questions 
had  to  be  settled:  What  was  to  be  done  with  the  Confed- 
erate states?  and  What  was  to  be  done  with  the  negroes? 
Congress  disposed  of  the  first  by  requiring  those  states  to 
draw  up  new  constitutions,  in  which  they  promised  never 
again  to  secede.  They  were  also  required  to  give  the  negroes 
the  right  to  vote,  and  to  ratify  new  amendments  to  the 
United  States  Constitution.  This  had  to  be  done  before 
they  could  send  representatives  to  Congress. 

In  January,  1863,  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  freed 
the  slaves  in  the  states  still  under  arms  against  the  govern- 
ment. Of  course  that  was  not  sufficient,  so  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  was  passed,  freeing  all  slaves,  and  prohibiting 
slavery  forever  in  the  territory  governed  by  the  United 
States. 

Freeing  people  who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  responsibil- 
ities of  life  or  liberty,  naturally  led  to  crime.  As  slaves,  they 
had  never  been  obliged  to  provide  for  themselves  or  for  their 
families,  and  many  did  not  know  how  to  go  to  work  to  earn  a 
living,  so  they  stole  to  keep  from  starving.  When  brought  to 
trial,  the  negro  had  no  money  to  pay  his  fine.  He  feared 
imprisonment,  so  when  a  white  man  offered  to  pay  his  fine 
the  negro  eagerly  agreed  to  work  for  him  for  an  indefinite 
period.  In  some  cases  he  bound  himself  to  work  three  or 
four  years  for  the  payment  of  a  fifty  dollar  fine.     The 

3°2 


ALASKA  303 

Southern  planters  needed  workmen,  and  in  this  way  often 
got  them  very  cheap.  Congress  believed  that  they  were 
violating  the  Thirteenth  Amendment,  so  a  Civil  Rights 
Bill  was  passed.  Also  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  was 
added  to  the  Constitution,  giving  to  the  negroes  or  freed- 
men  the  rights  of  citizenship. 

As  the  slaves  had  been  freed  and  made  citizens,  they  would 
now  be  counted  in  apportioning  representatives  in  Congress. 
This  and  the  fact  that  the  states  had  been  required  to  give 
them  the  right  to  vote,  led  to  the  Fifteenth  Amendment. 
It  says,  "the  right  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 

Alabama  Claims.  —  We  recall  that  the  Alabama,  built  in 
England,  captured  sixty-six  merchant  vessels  before  Captain 
Winslow  of  the  Kearsarge  destroyed  her,  off  the  coast  of 
France.  The  United  States  government  claimed  that  Eng- 
land had  violated  the  laws  governing  neutral  nations  when 
she  allowed  the  ship  to  be  launched  in  an  English  shipyard. 
In  1872,  by  the  Geneva  Award,  Great  Britain  agreed  to  pay 
$15,500,000  to  the  United  States  for  the  damage  done  by 
Confederate  cruisers.  As  the  most  famous  of  these  was  the 
Alabama,  the  suits  brought  by  our  government  for  damages 
are  often  called  the  Alabama  Claims. 

Purchase  of  Alaska.  —  Alaska  had  been  discovered  and 
explored  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  Rus- 
sians. The  Russian  government  gave  its  control  to  a  fur 
trading  company,  whose  charter  expired  in  1867.  Then  the 
United  States  bought  it  for  $7,200,000,  or  about  two  cents 
an  acre.  This  was  our  last  great  acquisition  of  territory 
on  the  American  continent.  Earlier  acquisitions  are  shown 
on  the  map  on  the  following  page. 

Growth  of  Railroads.  —  After  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cal- 


304 


THE  REAPER  305 

ifornia  there  was  a  great  demand  for  railroads  across  the 
continent,  but  the  Civil  War  interrupted  the  work  for  a  few 
years.  In  1870  the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Central  Pacific 
were  completed,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  begun.  These 
roads  with  others  and  their  many  branches  have  brought 
the  cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast  within  five  days  of  those  of  the 
Atlantic  Coast. 

Immigration  and  Growth  of  Cities.  —  At  the  close  of  the 
war  there  was  a  great  increase  in  immigration.  While  only 
about  90,000  foreigners  came  to  this  country  in  1861,  nearly 
500,000  came  in  1873.  The  building  of  railroads,  rapid 
growth  of  industries,  and  general  prosperity  caused  a  steady 
increase,  until,  in  1907,  nearly  1,300,000  came.  Many  of 
these  people  settled  in  the  cities. 

Another  reason  for  the  growth  of  cities  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  machines  saving  agricultural  labor  must  be  made  in 
factories  and  foundries  in  cities.  So  we  find  that  as  fewer 
men  are  needed  to  work  on  the  farms,  they  flock  to  the  cities 
and  work  in  shops.  These  labor-saving  machines,  and  the 
application  of  steam  and  electricity,  have  brought  about  great 
industrial  changes.  People  can  enjoy  more  luxuries  with  less 
hard  work  than  formerly. 

Cyrus  Hall  McCormick  and  the  Reaper 

Until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
implements  used  for  cutting  grass  and  grain  were  the  sickle, 
scythe,  and  cradle.  In  each  case  the  work  was  slow,  one 
man  being  able  to  cut  little  more  than  an  acre  in  a  day. 
This  was  a  great  disadvantage,  for  grass  and  grain  are 
injured  by  rains,  which  in  many  countries  are  liable  to 
occur  at  the  harvesting  season.     Another  disadvantage 


306  CYRUS   HALL   McCORMICK 

was  that  it  required  men  to  exercise  violently  in  the  fields 
at  a  time  when  heat  is  almost  unbearable. 

Some  attempts  had  been  made  to  construct  a  machine  to 
do  this  work,  but  until  1831  nothing  had  been  made  that 
worked  well.  Robert  McCormick,  a  Virginia  farmer,  had 
before  181 7  invented  several  labor-saving  farm  tools,  but  he 
failed  to  make  a  machine  to  cut  grain.  He  had  a  little  son, 
who  played  around  his  shop,  watching  these  efforts  and  lis- 
tening to  the  conversation  on  the  difficulties  of  the  problem. 
This  boy,  years  later,  succeeded  in  doing  what  his  father 
had  failed  to  do. 

Cyrus  Hall  McCormick  was  born  February  15,  1809,  just 
three  days  after  the  birth  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  His  childhood 
was  spent  in  a  home  of  great  comfort,  and  he  received  the  best 
of  training  from  parents  of  fine  Christian  character.  At  fif- 
teen, young  Cyrus  began  to  experiment  on  a  reaper,  using  the 
parts  cast  aside  by  his  father.  At  twenty- two,  he  had  built  a 
machine  that  worked  well. 

The  first  reaper  was  a  simple  affair,  but  it  possessed  the 
essential  features  of  the  later  machines.  Unlike  some  built  in 
earlier  times,  that  clipped  off  the  heads  of  the  grain,  this  cut 
the  straw  close  to  the  ground.  There  was  no  seat  for  the 
driver,  so  he  rode  on  one  of  the  horses;  and  a  man  walked 
beside  the  reaper  to  rake  the  grain  from  the  platform  after  it 
was  cut.  McCormick  was  not  satisfied  with  this  model  of 
1 83 1,  so  he  made  many  improvements  before  he  asked  for  a 
patent,  three  years  later. 

He  built  no  reapers  to  sell  until  1840,  but  from  that  time  the 
demand  for  them  increased  rapidly.  In  1844  some  machines 
made  by  the  McCormick  Brothers  in  Virginia  were  sold  to 
western  farmers,  and  were  shipped  by  water  from  Richmond 
to  New  Orleans,  then  up  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Ohio. 


THE    REAPER 


3°7 


This  increased  the  expense  and  reduced  the  profits,  so  the 
McCormicks  moved  to  Chicago,  within  easy  reach  of  the 
great  wheat-raising  farmers  of  the  West. 

The  manufacturing  establishment  they  founded  there 
now  covers  an  area  of  forty  acres,  employs  2500  men,  and 
makes  over  200,000  machines  each  year,  to  be  sold  in  every 
country  of  the  world. 

There   have  been   many   improvements   on   the    original 


McCormick  Harvester 

machine.  Since  1835  the  government  of  the  United  States  has 
granted  over  20,000  patents  for  modifications.  There  are 
harvesters  used  on  some  western  farms  which  combine  the 
reaper,  binder,  thresher,  fanning  mill,  sacker,  and  straw 
carrier.  They  are  propelled  by  traction  engines  or  by  thirty 
or  thirty-six  horses.  They  can  cut  from  sixty  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty- five  acres,  and  thresh  from  seventeen  hundred  to 
three  thousand  bushels  of  grain  in  a  day.  Those  using 
steam-power  require  seven  men,  while  four  men  can  manage 
the  horse-power  harvesters.    Such  monster  machines  are  not 


308  CYRUS   HALL  McCORMICK 

in  common  use.  The  average  reaper  saves  the  labor  of  seven 
or  eight  men. 

Wheat  is  the  most  important  food  product  in  the  world. 
When  wheat  is  cheap,  bread  is  cheap.  The  price  of  wheat 
depends  largely  on  the  supply-.  Labor-saving  machines  have 
made  great  production  possible.  In  some  sections  where  a 
farmer  could  formerly  harvest  barely  ten  acres  in  a  season, 
a  hundred  or  two  can  now  be  harvested. 

Mr.  McCormick,  who  invented  the  reaper,  was  also  a  great 
benefactor  in  other  ways.  He  made  large  sums  of  money 
from  his  business,  but  he  did  not  keep  it  all  for  himself.  He 
founded  a  theological  seminary  for  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
He  gave  generously  to  charity  and  religious  publications.  He 
lived  to  be  an  old  man,  and  saw  the  great  changes  that  came 
as  the  result  of  his  invention. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Early  methods  of  cutting  grain.  Robert  Mc- 
Cormick's  attempts  to  make  a  reaper.  Success  was  won  by  Cyrus 
McCormick  in  1831.  First  machine  sent  west.  McCormicks  located 
in  Chicago.     A  modern  reaper.     Benefits. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Describe  a  reaper  you  have  seen  cutting 
grain.  II.  Show  how  a  poor  man  in  the  city  may  be  benefited  by  a 
reaper. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  on  the  map  the  states  where  the  reaper  does 
its  greatest  work. 

Collateral  Reading 

Biography.  —  Mowry,  "American  Inventions  and  Inventors," 
pp.  1 1 7-123;  Hubert,  "Inventors,"  pp.  207-223;  Williams,  "Some 
Successful  Americans,"  pp.  79-89. 


MORSE  AND  OTHER  INVENTORS 

From  the  earliest  times  people  have  felt  the  need  of  send- 
ing messages  from  place  to  place  more  quickly  than  it  would 
be  possible  to  travel  the  same  distance.  Such  need  led  to  the 
adoption  of  various  methods  of  signaling.  One  method 
most  widely  used  was  that  of  the  beacon-light  or  a  signal-fire 
by  night  or  a  column  of  smoke  by  day.  Early  settlers  in 
America,  when  in  need  of  help  in  case  of  Indian  attacks, 
usually  built  a  fire  on  a  hill.  In  the  Revolution  the  action  of 
the  enemy  was  made  known  miles  away  by  the  successive 
lighting  of  signal-fires.  By  day,  mirrors  reflecting  sunlight 
were  used  in  a  similar  way.  The  semaphore  was  long  used. 
This  is  an  upright  standard  with  one  or  more  arms  that  can 
be  moved  into  positions  representing  letters  or  figures,  cor- 
responding to  the  code  of  the  communicating  parties. 

The  firing  of  cannon  placed  at  intervals  limited  by  the  range 
of  sound  has  also  been  used.  But  a  more  secret  method  and 
one  that  also  allows  an  extended  message  and  its  reply,  is 
the  signaling  with  flags.  A  code  understood  by  the  com- 
municating parties  is  followed  in  the  color  and  waving  of  these 
flags. 

All  such  devices  seem  poor  in  these  days  of  the  telephone 
and  wireless  telegraph.  Yet  our  present  conveniences  have 
not  long  been  enjoyed,  and  they  have  all  grown  out  of  the  work 
of  Professor  Morse. 

Samuel  Finley  Breese  Morse  was  born  near  Bunker  Hill 
battle  ground  in  1791.     His  father  was  a  Congregational 

309 


310  MORSE 

minister  who  had  been  a  college  professor,  and  was  related 
to  many  scholarly  men.  The  little  boy  early  showed  a  very 
bright  mind.  He  was  sent  to  school  at  the  age  of  four.  His 
first  teacher  was  known  as  "Old  Ma'am  Rand,"  who  was 
lame  and  could  not  leave  her  chair,  but  she  had  a  whip  long 
enough  to  reach  every  boy  in  the  room.  Professor  Morse 
tells  us  that  he  was  often  pinned  to  her  dress,  to  punish  him 
for  drawing  pictures  instead  of  studying  his  lessons. 

He  was  later  sent  to  one  of  the  famous  boys'  schools  in 
New  England,  and  then  to  Yale  college,  from  which  he  was 
graduated  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  The  year  after  graduation, 
he  went  to  England  to  study  painting,  and  there  he  received 
much  help  and  inspiration  from  the  great  artist,  West,  who 
had  been  so  good  a  friend  to  Robert  Fulton. 

Finley  Morse,  as  he  was  called,  had  much  ability,  and  was 
remarkably  successful  in  his  art  work.  When  he  was  only 
twenty- two,  he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Academy 
for  his  first  attempt  at  sculpture,  which  was  called  The 
Dying  Hercules.  Several  of  his  paintings  received  generous 
praise  from  the  critics  during  his  four  years'  stay  in  England. 

In  1 815  his  father  died,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to 
America.  For  several  years  he  spent  all  his  time  painting 
portraits,  among  which  was  one  of  Lafayette,  done  while  the 
great  Frenchman  was  in  this  country  in  1825.  After  this, 
Morse  spent  a  few  years  in  Europe,  copying  in  the  famous 
galleries  and  studying  under  the  great  teachers  of  England 
and  France. 

While  in  Europe  Morse  had  learned  much  about  the 
electro-magnet.  As  you  know,  Franklin  had  made  some 
valuable  experiments  with  electricity  a  century  before,  but 
thus  far  little  had  been  accomplished  in  controlling  and  using 
an  electric  current.     As  a  student,  Morse  had  been  greatly 


THE   ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH 


311 


interested  in  the  subject  of  electricity,  and  now  the  old  interest 
was  revived  by  talk  about  the  electro-magnet. 

In  1832,  while  on  shipboard  returning  from  Europe,  he 
became  greatly  absorbed  in  the  idea  of  possible  communica- 
tion by  means  of  an  electric  current.  It  was  well  known  that 
a  current  interrupted  in  its  circuit  produced  a  spark.  His 
first  thought  was  to  use,  in  combinations,  the  spark,  its 
absence,  and  the  duration  of  its  absence,  to  rep- 
resent letters  and  words.  He  made  an  alphabet. 
Then  he  devised  a  machine  for  recording  the  in- 
terruptions of  the  current  of  electricity.  It  is  said 
that  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  telegraph  was 
worked  out  on  that  voy- 


age. It  took  him,  how- 
ever, twelve  years  to  put 
that  idea  into  practical 
use. 

On  his  arrival  in  New 
York,  Morse  became  pro- 
fessor of  art  literature  in 
the  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York.  Although 
the  duties  of  his  profession 
were  along  a  different  line 
of  thought,  he  continued 
his  experiments  with  the 

telegraph.  His  great  difficulty  was  the  lack  of  money. 
People  were  slow  to  lend  it,  because  they  did  not  under- 
stand the  science  underlying  his  idea.  It  was  also  a  difficult 
thing  to  explain  without  actual  demonstration,  which  costs 
money.  But  from  1832  to  1843,  although  Professor  Morse 
was  so  very  poor  that  he  had  to  deny  himself  and  his  family 


Morse  and  his  First  Telegraphic 
Instrument 


MAK.  &  DEF. 


20 


312  MORSE 

often  the  necessaries  of  life,  he  persevered  in  his  experi- 
ments. 

He  applied  to  Congress  for  help.  A  bill  was  introduced 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  appropriating  $30,000  to  be 
used  by  Morse  in  completing  his  experiments  to  prove  that 
messages  could  be  sent  by  electricity.  Morse  believed  that 
if  a  message  could  be  sent  ten  miles,  it  could  be  sent  a  thou- 
sand. Many  men  in  speaking  on  the  bill  ridiculed  it  bitterly, 
but  Morse  and  his  friends  succeeded  in  influencing  enough 
men  to  pass  it.  For  many  days  the  Senate  gave  no  attention 
to  it.  In  fact,  at  the  beginning  of  the  evening  session  of  the 
last  day  before  adjournment  in  March,  1843,  there  were  119 
bills  to  be  acted  upon  before  this  one.  Morse  went  to  his 
hotel  utterly  discouraged.  The  next  morning  he  was  sur- 
prised to  be  told  that  the  bill  had  passed  the  Senate  five  min- 
utes before  closing.  This  assured  him  of  the  government's 
support  to  the  extent  of  $30,000. 

Morse  and  his  friends  then  worked  rapidly,  and  by  May  24, 
1844,  a  line  connecting  Washington  and  Baltimore  was  ready 
to  be  tested.  Morse  was  in  the  office  in  Washington,  and  a 
helper  was  at  Baltimore.  In  each  place  were  visitors.  The 
daughter  of  a  friend  was  asked  to  give  a  message.  She 
replied,  "What  hath  God  wrought  I "  This  was  clicked  over 
the  wires.  Then  others  asked  questions  and  received  answers 
from  Baltimore.  Some  of  the  visitors  believed,  but  others 
were  mystified  and  regarded  it  as  a  hoax. 

The  first  important  news  transmitted  by  the  electric 
telegraph  was  a  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Democratic 
convention  of  1844  in  Baltimore.  After  Polk  was  nom- 
inated for  President,  the  telegraph  was  used  to  notify  Mr. 
Silas  Wright  in  Washington  that  he  had  been  nominated 
for  Vice  President.    Mr.  Wright  declined  the  nomination. 


THE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH  313 

When  his  telegram  was  read  to  the  convention,  they  decided 
to  adjourn  until  a  committee  could  go  to  Washington  to 
see  Mr.  Wright  in  person.  When  that  committee  returned 
to  give  Mr.  Wright's  answer,  just  as  it  had  been  telegraphed 
the  day  before,  the  men  were  convinced  that  the  telegraph 
was  a  great  invention.  People  who  knew  little  about 
electricity  had  queer  notions  about  how  a  message  was 
sent.    Some  even  looked  to  see  it  going  along  the  wires. 

Lines  were  rapidly  put  up,  connecting  the  large  cities,  but 
men  said  that  the  wire  would  cost  more  than  could  be  col- 
lected by  sending  messages.  This  seemed  likely  at  first,  for 
one  day  only  twelve  cents  was  taken  in;  the  seventh  day, 
sixty  cents;  the  eighth  day,  one  dollar  and  thirty  cents  was 
received.  Since  then,  however,  fabulous  sums  have  been 
made  by  the  telegraph  companies.  Professor  Morse  wanted 
to  sell  his  rights  to  the  government,  but  the  government  did 
not  dare  to  buy. 

Professor  Morse  became  a  rich  man,  but  he  was  rewarded 
also  in  other  ways  for  his  years  of  labor,  poverty,  and  disap- 
pointment. The  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
each  gave  him  a  gold  medal  for  his  services  to  civilization. 
Ten  European  governments,  represented  in  Paris  in  1858, 
made  up  a  purse  of  $80,000  as  an  expression  of  their  appre- 
ciation of  his  services  to  the  world. 

In  June,  1871,  there  was  unveiled  a  statue  of  Professor 
Morse,  erected  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  at  the  expense  of 
the  telegraph  operators  of  the  country.  Delegates  were  pres- 
ent from  every  state  in  the  Union,  and  from  the  provinces  of 
Canada.  In  the  evening  a  great  meeting  was  held  in  the 
Academy  of  Music.  A  telegraph  instrument  on  the  stage  was 
in  connection  with  every  one  of  the  10,000  instruments  in 
America.     An  operator  stepped  to  the  key  and  sent  this 


3*4 


MORSE 


message:  "Greetings  and  thanks  to  the  telegraph  fraternity 
throughout  the  world.  Glory  to  God  in  the  highest;  peace, 
good  will  to  men."  Then  Professor  Morse  stepped  forward 
and,  touching  the  key,  sent  out  "S.  F.  B.  Morse." 

His  last  public  appearance  was  on  February  22, 1872,  when 
he  unveiled  the  statue  to  Franklin  in  Printing  House  Square, 
New  York.    He  lived  to  see  the  valuable  fruits  of  his  labor. 


Laying  the  Atlantic  Cable  (1866) 

Not  only  was  his  invention  then  used  by  the  whole  civilized 
world,  but  it  was  regarded  as  absolutely  necessary. 

Professor  Morse  early  believed  that  messages  could  be 
sent  under  water  as  well  as  on  land.  He  tried  some  experi- 
ments to  prove  this,  but  he  willingly  left  the  task  of  connecting 
America  and  Europe  to  younger  men.  To  Cyrus  W.  Field 
belongs  the  honor  of  laying  the  first  Atlantic  cable,  after  many 
unsuccessful  attempts.    In  August,  1858,  two  ships  carrying 


THE   ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH  315 

miles  of  cable  sailed  to  mid  ocean.  There  the  ends  of  the  cable 
were  spliced,  and  the  ships  parted  and  sailed  in  opposite 
directions,  one  to  Ireland  and  the  other  to  Newfoundland, 
where  the  ends  were  connected  with  instruments.  On  Au- 
gust 16  this  message  was  sent:  " Europe  and  America  are 
united  by  telegraph."  A  greeting  from  Queen  Victoria 
to  the  President  and  his  reply  were  sent.  But  a  few  days 
later  the  cable  failed  to  work.  It  had  broken,  as  had 
happened  during  many  other  attempts  to  lay  cables. 

The  Civil  War  came,  and  all  attempts  to  lay  another  cable 
were  given  up.  The  summer  after  the  war  was  over,  the  work 
was  renewed,  and  in  July,  1866,  two  cables  were  successfully 
laid.  Since  then  all  parts  of  the  world  have  been  brought 
into  communication  by  telegraph  and  cable,  both  of  which 
are  of  great  importance  to  the  business  and  general  welfare 
of  nations. 

It  was  discovered  in  the  early  days  of  the  telegraph  that 
sounds  were  conveyed  by  the  wires.  This  led  to  experiments 
on  a  telephone,  which  in  1876  was  completed  successfully, 
and  was  first  publicly  exhibited  at  the  Centennial  at  Phil- 
adelphia. This  was  accomplished  by  the  patient  and 
persistent  efforts  of  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  then  a  teacher- 
of  visible  speech  to  the  deaf  and  dumb.  He  strung  a  wire 
between  the  first  and  fourth  floors  of  his  house,  and  devised 
a  receiver  and  a  transmitter  that  worked  well.  Men  who 
saw  it  said  that  it  would  not  work  well  out  of  doors,  so  the 
next  task  was  to  prove  that  it  would.  Short  distance  lines 
proved  successful.  Now  many  thousand  miles  of  telephone 
wires  are  stretched  throughout  the  country.  A  business 
man  in  New  York  can  call  up  another  in  Chicago  and  com- 
plete an  important  piece  of  business  in  a  few  minutes. 

The  reproduction  or  transmission  of  the  human  voice, 


316  MORSE 

recognizable  many  miles  away,  seemed  really  the  limit  of 
wonders,  but  greater  things  have  been  achieved.  Now  tele- 
graph messages  are  sent  without  wires.  There  was  a  time 
when  an  ocean  voyage  meant  being  cut  off  from  home  news 
for  at  least  a  week.  Now  many  steamships  are  equipped 
with  wireless  machinery,  and  are  in  communication  with 
points  on  both  sides  of  the  water  and  with  passing  ships.  To 
the  young  Italian,  Marconi,  belongs  the  credit  for  this  last 
great  invention. 

These  improved  methods  of  communication  have  been  of 
untold  benefit  to  the  world.  Each  one  cost  years  of  hard 
labor,  sacrifices,  and  much  discouragement,  but  the  result 
has  been  abundantly  worth  the  efforts. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Methods  of  signaling.  Morse  as  a  boy  and  a 
painter.  Interest  in  electricity.  Twelve  years  experimenting  on  the 
telegraph.  First  line  operated  in  1844.  Atlantic  cable  laid  by  Field 
in  1858.  Telephone  invented  by  Bell  in  1876.  Wireless  telegraph  by 
Marconi  in  1902. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Write  a  paragraph  on  whichever  of  these 
inventions  you  think  the  greatest.  II.  Describe  in  full  the  workings 
of  one  of  these  methods  of  communication. 


Instrument  for  sending  Telegrams 


EDISON  AND  THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT 

Probably  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  artificial  light  was 
the  torch,  or  burning  stick,  such  as  a  pine  knot.  This  did 
very  well  for  use  in  the  open  air,  but  produced  too  much 
smoke  to  be  pleasant  for  house  use.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
used  a  simple  lamp  in  the  form  of  a  covered  cup  with  a  small 
opening  through  which  a  piece  of  cloth  was  drawn.  The 
lamp  was  filled  with  olive  oil,  and  the  piece  of  cloth  served  as 
a  wick. 

In  the  colonial  days  of  our  country  the  tallow  candle  was 
chiefly  used.  The  candle  of  tallow  or  wax  has  been  widely 
used  for  centuries,  and  is  popular  to-day  for  decorations.  The 
first  lamps  of  modern  days  were  filled  with  whale  oil,  but 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  this  was  dis- 
placed by  kerosene,  which  is  much  used  to-day.  The  next 
step  in  advance  was  the  introduction  of  illuminating  gas, 
and  men  thought  the  perfect  light  had  at  last  been  found, 
but  electricity  in  some  respects  is  much  better.  The  in- 
candescent light  so  familiar  to  us  is  of  recent  invention.  It 
is  one  of  many  devices  invented  by  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

Edison,  as  he  is  usually  called,  was  born  in  Ohio,  Febru- 
ary ii,  1847.  His  parents  were  poor,  and  the  boy  is  said  to 
have  had  only  two  months  of  school  life.  His  mother,  how- 
ever, was  an  intelligent  woman,  and  she  taught  him  to  read 
and  laid  the  foundations  for  the  excellent  work  which  he  later 
did  for  himself.     If  ever  there  was  a  self-educated  man, 

3J7 


318  EDISON 

Edison  is  a  good  example,  for  he  is  essentially  well  educated 

without  having  been  (o  school. 

At  the  age  of  twelve,  he  became  a  newsboy  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  Michigan  Central  Railroad,  running  from 
Toronto  to  Port  Huron,  Michigan.  He  sold  papers  and 
candy,  and  kept  his  eyes  and  ears  open.  He  learned  much 
from  what  he  saw  and  heard,  and  he  read  everything  that 
seemed  to  him  worth  reading.  The  story  is  told  that  he 
made  up  his  mind  to  read  a  whole  library.  He  selected  a 
shelf  and  read  every  book  in  turn  until  he  had  devoured 
the  contents  of  all  standing  on  fifteen  feet  of  shelving. 

His  chief  interest  was  in  chemistry.  He  said  he  came  to 
know  every  word  in  his  first  textbook  on  chemistry.  But  he 
was  never  satisfied  merely  to  read  about  experiments.  He 
rigged  up  a  corner  of  the  baggage  car  as  a  laboratory.  Here 
he  also  printed  a  little  sheet,  "The  Grand  Trunk  Herald," 
with  type  thrown  away  by  a  printing  house.  The  paper  con- 
tained railroad  news,  and  both  trainmen  and  travelers 
cheerfully  bought  it. 

Edison  says  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
working  very  hard  but  making  little  money.  He  had  to  be 
careful  to  get  no  more  papers  than  he  could  sell,  and  on  the 
other  hand  he  wanted  enough  to  meet  the  demand.  This  led 
him  to  study  the  headlines  in  estimating  the  number  he  could 
sell.  Then  it  occurred  to  him  to  telegraph  bits  of  war  news 
to  stations  ahead  of  his  train.  The  operator  wrote  these  on 
a  bulletin,  and  by  the  time  Edison's  train  arrived  crowds 
were  calling  for  papers. 

Telegraphy  had  a  peculiar  fascination  for  him.  He  knew 
all  the  operators  along  his  route,  and  he  wanted  to  learn  the 
business,  but  he  could  not  afford  to  stop  work  and  pay  for 
lessons.    Fortune  favored  him  when  he  least  expected  it.    He 


EARLY   LIFE 


3*9 


saved  a  small  child  from  being  run  over  by  an  approaching 
train,  and  the  grateful  father,  who  was  an  operator,  taught 
young  Edison  without  pay.  At  fifteen  he  became  an  oper- 
ator. When  still  a  young  man  he  invented  a  repeating 
instrument,  a  device  by  which  a  message  could  be  forwarded 
on  a  second  line  without  the  presence  of  an  operator.  A 
little  later  he  invented  the  famous  duplex  which  made 
possible  the  sending  of  two  messages  over  the  wire  at  the 


Edison  and  the  Phonograph 

same  time.  This  has  been  modified  and  improved  so 
that  to-day  the  same  wire  can  be  used  for  four  or  six  mes- 
sages at  once. 

He  is  by  nature  an  inventor.  He  makes  this  distinction 
between  discovery  and  invention.  "In  a  discovery  there 
will  be  an  element  of  the  accidental.  In  my  own  case  but 
few,  and  those  the  least  important  of  my  inventions,  owed 
anything  to  accident.  Most  of  them  have  been  hammered 
out  after  long  and  patient  labor,  and  are  the  result  of  count- 


320  EDISON 

less  experiments  all  directed  toward  some  well  determined 
object."  Back  in  the  days  of  the  baggage-car  laboratory  he 
was  not  content  to  read  about  a  battery,  but  he  set  to  work 
and  made  one.  It  has  been  his  good  fortune  that  he  is  also 
a  genius  in  mechanics.  He  has  the  skill  to  express  an  idea 
in  material  form.  For  example,  he  had  an  idea  that  a 
record  of  sounds  uttered  by  the  human  voice  could  be 
made  and  preserved,  so  that  the  sounds  could  be  reproduced 
at  a  later  time.  His  mechanical  skill  served  him  in  the 
actual  construction  of  a  contrivance  carrying  out  that  idea, 
and  we  have  as  a  result  the  phonograph. 

Many  scientists  had  worked  on  the  problem  of  electric 
lighting.  The  arc  light  involved  less  difficulty  than  the 
incandescent  lamp,  which  is  a  coil  of  wire  in  a  glass  bulb 
from  which  the  air  has  been  exhausted.  Inventors  failed 
with  this  at  first  because  of  the  expense  and  its  uncertainty. 
Edison  mastered  the  difficulties,  at  the  expense  of  much 
money,  time,  and  patience.  Every  possible  material  was 
tried,  and  hundreds  of  lamps  were  kept  burning  and  were 
carefully  studied  in  order  to  determine  just  what  conditions 
produced  the  best  and  most  lasting  light.  To-day  millions 
of  people  are  enjoying  the  benefits.  The  light  is  clean, 
bright,  odorless,  and  produces  little  heat.  This  can  be  said 
of  no  other  mode  of  lighting  houses. 

Edison's  inventions  patented  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment number  nearly  eight  hundred.  He  has  made  a  great 
deal  of  money,  but  he  still  finds  his  greatest  pleasure  in  his 
laboratory  experiments.  His  laboratory  at  West  Orange,  New 
Jersey,  is  the  finest  in  the  world.  In  one  room  twenty  feet 
square  are  instruments  that  cost  $18,000.  In  the  storeroom 
are  to  be  found  every  known  metal,  every  chemical,  every 
kind  of  glass,  stone,  wood,  fiber,  paper,  and  skin  that  can 


THE   ELECTRIC    LIGHT  32 I 

be  used  in  experiments.  The  supplies  in  this  room  are 
valued  at  $100,000.  This  complete  assortment  of  materials 
is  kept  to  prevent  delay  in  securing  any  substance  at  a  critical 
time  of  experimentation. 

Edison  has  as  his  helpers  the  most  skillful  men  to  be  found. 
When  a  man  in  any  of  the  great  establishments  with  which 
he  is  connected  shows  marked  ability,  he  tests  him  and  gives 
him  special  advantages.  This  often  results  in  the  addition 
of  the  man  to  the  force  of  helpers  at  West  Orange. 

In  appearance  Edison  is  of  medium  height  and  compactly 
built.  His  hair  is  quite  gray,  but  his  smooth-shaven  face  is 
fresh  and  boyish.  His  eyes  are  clear  and  steady,  and,  as  he  is 
somewhat  deaf,  he  appears  to  listen  with  his  eyes.  He  cares 
little  for  dress  or  personal  luxury,  but  has  a  very  beautiful 
home  because  he  considers  the  happiness  of  his  family.  He 
is  very  patient  with  visitors  and  particularly  kind  and  encour- 
aging to  boys  who  show  mechanical  genius. 

Edison  is  regarded  as  America's  greatest  inventor  and  one 
of  the  greatest  men  of  genius  of  this  age.  Although  he  started 
with  but  two  months  of  schooling,  he  has  succeeded  because 
of  his  powers  of  application  and  concentration,  persistent 
effort,  and  hard  labor. 

The  inventions  by  Morse,  Edison,  and  Marconi  are  sup- 
plemented by  the  improved  method  of  printing  that  brings 
the  news  to  the  masses  of  people.  As  you  may  know, 
Benjamin  Franklin's  press  could  print  but  one  page  at  a 
time,  and  was  worked  by  turning  a  crank  by  hand.  To-day, 
through  the  inventions  of  Richard  M.  Hoe,  there  are  presses 
run  by  125  horse  power  of  electricity,  that  print  in  an  hour 
280  miles  of  paper  the  width  of  a  newspaper.  In  other  words, 
they  turn  out  in  an  hour  96,000  sixteen-page  papers,  or  48,000 
thirty-two-page  papers,  all  folded,  pasted,  and  counted. 


322 


EDISON 


Topical  Outline.  —  Early  forms  of  lighting:  torch,  candle,  lamp 
Edison;  newsboy  and  telegraph  operator.  Experiments  on  incan- 
descent lamp.     Characteristics  of  the  man.     Services. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  Describe  a  phonograph.  II.  Write  on 
other  uses  of  the  incandescent  lamp  besides  that  of  house-lighting. 
III.  Write  on  any  other  things  you  have  read  about  Edison. 

Collateral  Reading 

History.  —  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure," 
pp.  66-74;  Hart  and  Chapman,  "  How  our  Grandfathers  Lived," 
pp.  220-223;  Earle,  "Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,"'pp.  32-51. 

Biography.  —  Mowry,  "  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,"  pp. 
67-89,  265-294;  Hubert,  "Inventors,"  pp.  m-i55>  223-270. 


Modern  Printing  Press 


ADMIRAL  DEWEY  AND  THE  SPANISH  WAR 


Spanish  rule  in  Cuba  for  many  years  had  been  so  cruel 
and  oppressive  that  the  island  was  in  a  constant  state  of  rebel- 
lion. In  1895-  part  of  the  Cuban  people  succeeded  in  setting 
up  a  native  government.  Spain,  fearing  the  consequences, 
sent  over  a  governor  general  who  employed  more  oppress- 
ive measures  than  had  formerly  been  used.  He  drove  the 
farmers  into  the 


Q 

ISLE  OF 

Pines 


U*>S>* 


West  Indies 


towns  to  live,  and 
then  he  destroyed 
their  crops  and 
buildings.  This 
deprived  the  Cu- 
ban army  of  the 
food  supplies  usu- 
ally furnished  by 
the  farmers.  When  the  country  people  reached  the  towns, 
they  were  compelled  to  live  in  most  unsanitary  conditions, 
and  were  allowed  little  and  poor  food. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  were  shocked  at  such 
treatment,  and  indignantly  demanded  that  Spain  should  be 
more  humane  in  dealing  with  the  Cubans.  Finally,  our 
government  sent  the  battleship  Maine  to  Havana  harbor 
because,  in  such  troublous  times,  American  citizens  and  Amer- 
ican interests  in  Cuba  were  likely  to  suffer. 

On  the  night  of  February  15,  1898,  this  battleship  was 
blown  up  and  266  lives  were  lost.     Many  Americans  believed 

323 


324 


GEORGE   DEWEY 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


14  Ma,««m 

Manila  Bdp^- \./\,       J" 

J"       .PA  NAY)     •     •-V_\i-_ 


the  Spanish  authorities  were  responsible  for  the  outrage. 
The  government  tried  to  make  a  peaceable  settlement  with 
Spain,  but  failed.  On  April  n,  President  McKinley,  in  a 
special  message  to  Congress,  said,  "In  the  name  of  human- 
ity and  civilization,  the  war  in  Cuba  must  stop."    Congress 

declared  war  against  Spain 
x\pril  25,  and  the  commander 
farthest  from  home  won  the  first 
victory.  This  was  Commodore 
Dewey,  who  was  in  command  of 
an  American  fleet  temporarily 
stationed  at  Hongkong,  China. 

George  Dewey  was  born  in 
Montpelier,  Vermont,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1837,  and  was  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1858.  In  1861  he 
was  commissioned  lieutenant 
and  served  under  Admiral  Far- 
ragut  in  the   Mississippi  cam- 

The  Philippines  pajgn  jR  l862_63<      Later  }n  the 

war,  he  served  in  the  North  Atlantic  blockading  squadron. 

After  the  Civil  War,  Dewey  received  in  turn  the  ranks  of 
Commander,  Captain,  and  Commodore,  and  served  in  many 
waters.  In  January,  1898,  he  was  given  command  of  the 
Asiatic  squadron,  "  An  assignment  then  considered  but  little 
short  of  exile,"  says  Lodge. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Maine,  when  war  with  Spain 
seemed  probable,  Commodore  Dewey  under  orders  of  our 
government  began  to  prepare  his  vessels  for  active  service 
in  the  harbor  of  Hongkong.  When  war  was  declared,  he 
was  ordered  to  capture  or  destroy  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the 


CELEBES     SEA 


THE   SPANISH    WAR  325 

Philippine  waters.  This  was  very  necessary,  for  otherwise 
it  was  thought  these  ships  might  attack  the  American 
cities  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

One  of  Commodore  Dewey's  striking  characteristics  was 
his  readiness  to  meet  an  emergency.  His  men  were  under 
splendid  discipline;  his  ships  were  in  good  shape  and  well 
supplied  for  action.  Five  days  after  war  was  declared, 
Dewey's  fleet  had  traveled  over  six  hundred  miles,  and  on 
the  night  of  April  30th  was  steaming  into  Manila  Bay, 
where  he  knew  the  Spanish  squadron  was  to  be  found. 

The  American  fleet  consisted  of  nine  swift,  well-armed  ships, 
but  not  one  of  them  was  armor-clad.  At  the  entrance  to  the 
bay  lie  two  islands  on  which  were  strong  fortifications,  but, 
like  Farragut  of  old,  Dewey  took  his  chances  in  passing  these 
forts.  The  night  was  dark,  not  a  light  was  visible,  and  not  a 
sound  could  be  heard  save  the  throbbing  of  the  engines. 
The  flagship  Olympia  took  the  lead,  and  the  other  ships 
silently  followed  in  line.  They  were  well  in  the  channel 
before  they  were  discovered.  A  few  shots  were  exchanged; 
then  came  quiet,  and  daylight  found  Dewey's  fleet  far  up 
the  bay. 

Manila  Bay  is  about  thirty  miles  long.  Manila  is  twenty- 
six  miles  and  Cavite  is  sixteen  miles  from  the  entrance  to 
the  bay.  Close  under  the  batteries  of  Cavite  lay  the 
Spanish  fleet.  As  Senator  Lodge  says,  "The  moment  had 
come.  It  came  fortunately  to  a  man  who  knew  exactly 
what  he  meant  to  do.  .  .  .  Commodore  Dewey  had 
his  plan  thoroughly  laid  out,  and  now  proceeded  to  carry 
it  into  execution." 

The  Commodore  got  his  two  supply  boats  into  a  safe  posi- 
tion, and  then  his  fleet  moved  past  Cavite.  Two  or  three 
mines  exploded,  but  did  no  injury.    The  Spanish  batteries 


326 


GEORGE   DEWEY 


and  ships  fired,  but  the  Americans  had  been  instructed 
"to  hold  fire  until  close  in. "  When  within  a  little  less  than 
three  miles  of  the  Spanish  ships,  Dewey  said  to  the  Captain 
of  the  Olympia,  "If  you  are  ready,  Gridley,  you  may  fire." 
Then  the  signal  went  up,  "Fire  as  convenient."  This  was 
followed  by  the  order,  "Open  with  all  the  guns." 

The  American  ships,  firing  deadly  broadsides,  passed  and 
repassed  the  Spanish  fleet  five  times,  each  time  a  little  nearer 


Battle  of  Manila  Bay 

than  before.  The  Spanish  flagship  bravely  darted  out  toward 
the  Olympia,  but  the  storm  of  shot  directed  on  her  tore  up 
her  deck  and  exploded  her  boilers,  killing  150  of  her  crew. 
Several  other  ships  that  ventured  out  were  treated  in  a  similar 
way. 

After  two  hours,  Commodore  Dewey  gave  the  signal  to 
cease  firing  and  follow  the  flagship.    They  moved  toward  the 


THE    SPANISH   WAR  327 

opposite  side  of  the  bay,  where  they  ate  breakfast,  cleaned  the 
decks,  and  rested.  Three  hours  later,  at  a  quarter  before 
eleven,  the  battle  was  renewed;  and  it  ended  early  in  the 
afternoon  with  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Spanish  fleet. 
After  raising  the  white  Hag,  the  Spanish  admiral  fled  to 
Manila.  Soon  the  shore  batteries  were  silenced.  Dewey's 
orders  had  been  to  capture  or  destroy  the  fleet.  He  had  com- 
pletely destroyed  it  without  the  loss  of  a  ship  or  of  a  man,  and  • 
only  eight  of  his  men  had  been  at  all  injured.  A  little  later 
an  army  was  sent  to  take  possession  of  Manila. 

Senator  Lodge  says,  "The  secret  of  this  great  victory  was 
in  the  accuracy  and  rapidity  of  the  American  gunners.  This 
great  quality  was  not  accidental,  but  due  to  skill,  practice, 
and  national  aptitude.  In  addition  to  this  traditional  skill 
was  the  genius  of  the  commander,  backed  by  the  fighting 
capacity  of  his  captains  and  his  crews."  The  same  qualities 
were  shown  two  months  later  in  the  destruction  of  the  other 
Spanish  fleet  off  Santiago. 

In  recognition  of  Dewey's  services,  Congress  voted  him  a 
$10,000  sword,  and  the  rank  of  Admiral  was  revived  and 
conferred  upon  him.  On  September  26,  1899,  he  arrived  in 
New  York  in  his  famous  flagship  Olympia,  and  received  the 
grandest  reception  ever  given  to  a  public  officer.  The  dem- 
onstration included  a  naval  parade  on  September  29,  and  a 
land  parade  the  following  day. 

As  a  result  of  this  war  with  Spain,  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippine  Islands  were  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  Cuba 
was  granted  independence  under  the  protection  of  our  gov- 
ernment. 


Topical   Outline.  —  Spanish   oppression   in    Cuba.     Destruction   of 
the  Maine.    War  declared.     Dewey  ordered  to  capture  or  destroy  the 

MAK.    &  DEF.  —  21 


THE   SPANISH  WAR 


329 


Asiatic  fleet  of  Spain.  Battle  of  Manila.  Santiago  victory.  Dewey's 
return.    Results  of  the  war. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  As  one  of  the  crew  of  the  Olympia,  describe 
that  Sunday  morning's  work  in  Manila  Bay.  II.  Describe  another 
event  of  this  war,  that  you  have  read  about  elsewhere. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Hongkong,  Manila  Bay,  Santiago. 

For  Collateral  Reading.  —  Johnson,  "  The  Hero  of  Manila."* 


srv   ?/«    ■■-■■'  •     - 


T  v  &«*■     •  •  v 

■-> . ,  '/aij*  * ■*•  '■■■ '? 
%      , 

l\  fit  liwSWS 


"m^: 


Scene  in  the  Philippines 


ANDREW  CARNEGIE  —  THE  PHILANTHROPIST 


There  is  a  man  known  and  respected  by  all  Americans, 
who  was  neither  a  soldier  nor  inventor,  but  a  successful 
business  man  and  philanthropist.     The  life  of  this  man 

should  be  an  inspiration  to  every 
ambitious  boy,  for  all  his  wealth 
has  come  from  his  own  work. 

Andrew  Carnegie  was  born  at 
Dunfermline,1  Scotland,  Novem- 
ber 25,  1837.  His  father  was  a 
master  weaver,  and  his  mother  a 
thrifty  housewife,  who  found  time 
to  give  her  boys  the  best  of  care 
and  training.  She  taught  Andrew 
at  home  until  he  was  eight,  when 
he  was  sent  to  a  public  school. 
The  schoolmaster  began  the 
day's  work  with  a  scripture  les- 
son, and  the  boys  were  once 
asked  to  give  a  text  from  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon.  Now 
Andy  had  been  well  instructed  in  the  Bible,  but  that  morn- 
ing, when  his  turn  came,  he  responded  with,  "Take  care 
of  the  pence,  and  the  pounds  will  take  care  of  themselves." 
This  shows  that  his  mother  began  early  to  start  her  boy  on 
the  road  to  become  a  rich  man. 

1  In  Fife  County,  north  of  the  Firth  of  Forth;  a  few  miles  northwest 
of  Edinburgh. 

33° 


Andrew  Carnegie 


BOYHOOD  331 

Andrew's  father  was  a  prosperous  weaver;  he  had  four 
damask-looms  and  kept  several  apprentices.  But  early  in 
the  'forties,  machines  rapidly  displaced  the  hand  looms,  and 
one  day,  when  Andrew  was  ten,  his  father  announced  that 
there  was  no  more  work  for  him.  It  was  a  serious  prospect, 
for  everywhere  in  England  and  Scotland  were  the  same  con- 
ditions. 

They  decided  to  move  to  America.  As  some  relatives  had 
previously  settled  in  Pittsburg,  the  Carnegies  went  directly 
to  that  city  on  their  arrival  in  1848.  The  father  found  work 
in  a  cotton  mill,  and  Andrew  became  a  bobbin  boy  at  $1.20  a 
week.  He  says  that  although  he  has  handled  many  millions 
of  dollars  since,  no  money  has  ever  given  him  so  much  pleas- 
ure as  that  dollar  and  twenty  cents  at  the  end  of  a  hard 
week's  work  of  twelve-hour  days.  He  shared  in  the  expenses 
of  the  family,  arid  formed  the  habit  of  saving  a  little  each  week. 

The  next  year  he  fired  an  engine  in  a  factory  at  an  increase 
of  pay,  but  the  work  was  distasteful  to  him.  He  was  on  the 
lookout  for  something  better,  and  within  a  year  had  work  as 
a  telegraph  messenger  boy  at  $2.50  a  week.  This  delighted 
him  because  he  could  be  out  of  doors.  But  he  met  difficulties, 
for  he  did  not  know  the  city.  So  this  fourteen-year-old  boy 
set  to  work  committing  to  memory  the  location  of  every 
prominent  business  house,  until  he  could  close  his  eyes  and 
tell  exactly  where  each  was  located.  He  says,  however, 
that  one  difficulty  of  the  business  he  failed  to  master.  It  was 
the  custom,  if  anything  was  the  matter,  to  send  one  of  the  boys 
up  a  telegraph  pole,  to  repair  the  wire.  Carnegie  says  he 
tried  his  best  to  climb  one  of  those  poles,  but  failed. 

He  had  been  employed  as  a  messenger  but  one  month  when 
he  began  to  learn  telegraphy.  He  used  his  spare  time  at  the 
instruments,  and,  from  the  first,  trained  himself  to  receive  by 


332  ANDREW   CARNEGIE 

sound  instead  of  by  reading  the  tape.  At  sixteen,  he  was  an 
operator.  He  was  thorough  and  exact  in  all  he  did,  and  men 
sought  him  for  these  special  qualities.  Newspaper  men  asked 
him  to  prepare  "copy"  of  news  received  over  the  wire.  This 
gratified  a  peculiar  desire  he  had  to  write  for  publication,  and 
it  added  a  little  to  his  income. 

Superintendent  Scott  of  the  Pittsburg  Division  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  came  to  know  his  accuracy,  and  selected 
young  Carnegie  as  the  operator  for  his  most  important  mes- 
sages. In  time  Mr.  Scott  decided  that  Carnegie  was  just 
the  kind  of  boy  he  wanted  in  his  own  office.  During  the 
period  of  Carnegie's  work  in  the  superintendent's  office, 
there  were  many  times  when  his  integrity  and  good  judgment 
were  well  tested.  He  did  his  work  so  well  that  he  became 
superintendent  himself  when  still  very  young. 

Each  promotion  after  he  was  sixteen  meant  much,  for 
Andrew's  father  had  died,  and,  being  the  elder  son,  Andrew 
felt  responsible  for  his  mother's  comfort.  He  was  always 
devoted  to  his  mother,  and  often  says  that  he  owes  his 
success  to  her  training  when  he  was  a  child,  and  to  her 
encouragement  when  he  became  a  man. 

When  war  broke  out,  Mr.  Scott  became  Assistant  Secretary 
of  War,  and  Carnegie  became  Assistant  Superintendent  of 
Military  Railroads  and  Telegraphs.  Although  he  never 
enlisted,  young  Carnegie  was  the  third  man  wounded.  He 
was  not  wounded  by  a  bullet,  but  by  a  bounding  wire  when  he 
was  working  on  a  special  telegraph  line  for  receiving  war  news 
from  the  field.  He  sent  messages  to  the  War  Department  from 
the  front,  and  devised  a  code  for  cipher  dispatches.  After 
one  year  of  service,  he  and  Mr.  Scott  returned  to  Pittsburg. 

Soon  after  this,  a  man  came  to  him  one  day  with  a  model 
ot  a  sleeping  car.     Carnegie  saw  at  once  that  the  idea  was 


BUSINESS   MAN  333 

good.  He  consulted  Mr.  Scott,  and  through  their  iniluence 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  put  on  its  line  the  first  sleeping 
cars  used  in  America.  Carnegie  invested  in  their  manufac- 
ture, which  proved  to  be  a  very  profitable  business. 

When  he  became  superintendent  of  the  Pittsburg  Division, 
the    question    of   bridges    occupied    much    of    his    thought. 


Making  Steel 

Bridges  of  wood  burned  and  decayed  and  were  often  washed 
away  by  the  floods,  and  it  was  largely  through  him  that  iron 
bridges  were  substituted.  He  believed  so  thoroughly  in  the 
idea,  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sleeping  cars,  he  became 
interested  in  their  manufacture.  The  Keystone  Bridge  Com- 
pany, of  which  he  was  a  large  stockholder,  sold  bridges  all 
over  the  country. 


334  ANDREW   CARNEGIE 

Carnegie  always  had  a  desire  to  improve  whatever  he 
worked  with.  Realizing  the  superiority  of  steel  over  iron 
for  many  things,  he  set  to  work  to  make  steel.  Pittsburg  is 
in  the  midst  of  a  great  iron-producing  section.  Carnegie 
established  furnaces  where  steel  is  made  by  forcing  powerful 
currents  of  air  through  molten  iron  to  remove  the  carbon. 
For  several  years  he  was  the  leading  figure  in  the  steel- 
producing  world. 

Andrew  Carnegie  had  many  men  in  his  employ,  and  his 
treatment  of  them  is  interesting.  He  had  the  reputation 
of  paying  the  best  wages  in  the  country  for  the  kind  of  work 
done,  and  long  ago  he  favored  an  eight-hour  day.  He 
would  have  no  laggards  in  his  employ.  He  said  he  was 
willing  to  pay  well  for  work,  but  not  for  loafing.  He  gave 
four  million  dollars  for  pensions  to  worthy  men  in  his 
employ. 

He  is  famous  for  his  young  men  partners.  He  often 
took  capable  young  men  from  the  unskilled  ranks  and  put 
them  into  places  of  responsibility.  If  they  were  successful, 
they  were  taken  into  partnership.  Carnegie  says  that 
honesty,  industry,  and  concentration  are  the  qualities 
necessary  for  success  in  business.  He  himself  is  a  good 
example  of  the  practical  value  of  these  virtues,  and  they 
are  possible  to  any  boy. 

Carnegie  is  a  philanthropist  as  well  as  a  good  business 
man.  His  favorite  benefaction  is  in  the  form  of  public 
libraries.  He  says  this  is  prompted  from  his  own  experience. 
As  a  young  boy  he  wanted  books,  but  had  few,  until  Colonel 
Anderson  let  him  come  to  his  private  library  and  select  books 
to  take  home  and  read.  He  regards  that  as  one  of  the  great- 
est privileges  of  his  boyhood,  and  he  is  eager  to  put  books 
within  the  reach  of  every  poor  boy  to-day.     Up  to  June, 


PHILANTHROPIST  335 

1907,  Carnegie  had  given  away  $167,000,000,  and  about 
one  third  of  this  amount  was  for  the  founding  of  public 
libraries. 

The  story  is  told  that,  as  a  little  boy  in  Dunfermline,  he 
used  to  look  through  the  iron  fence  into  a  private  park  and 
long  to  go  in  and  play.  When  he  became  wealthy,  he  went 
back  to  Dunfermline,  bought  that  park,  and  gave  it  to  the 
town  to  be  free  for  every  one.  The  fine  old  mansion  in  the 
park  was  made  into  a  clubhouse  with  reading  rooms  for 
old  and  young.  He  also  gave  $10,000,000  for  universities 
in  Scotland.  He  built  a  beautiful  castle  near  his  boyhood 
home,  and  usually  spends  a  part  of  each  year  there. 

Mr.  Carnegie  is  the  author  of  several  books,  in  one  of  which 
he  says  he  believes  that  "  the  man  who  has  neglected  to  help 
his  fellows  during  life  dies  disgraced."  He  has  enjoyed  mak- 
ing money  and  possessing  great  wealth  because  of  the  good 
he  can  do  with  it.  Although  over  seventy,  he  is  still  fond  of 
outdoor  life.  He  is  also  devoted  to  children.  Men  say  that 
you  cannot  look  into  his  face  and  catch  the  twinkle  of  his 
blue  eyes  without  feeling  that  you  would  like  to  know  him 
better. 

Topical  Outline.  —  Birthplace  in  Scotland.  Boyhood  of  hard  work. 
Became  a  telegraph  operator.  Service  in  war  time.  Maker  of  sleeping 
cars  and  iron  bridges.  Great  steel  industry.  Generous  gifts  for  public 
good. 

For  Written  Work.  —  I.  What  do  you  particularly  like  about  Mr. 
Carnegie  ?  Give  your  reasons.  II.  Write  a  paragraph  on  the  good  of 
public  libraries.  III.  Explain  why  honesty,  industry,  and  concentra- 
tion are  necessary  to  business  success. 

Map  Work.  —  Locate  Dunfermline,  Scotland;  Pittsburg. 


APPENDIX 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  — 1776 


In  Congress,  July  4,  1776. 
the  unanimous  declaration  of  the  thirteen  united  states  of 

AMERICA 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and 
equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle 
them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they 
should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  men  are  created 
equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable 
rights ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 
That,  to  secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men, 
deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed  ;  that,  when- 
ever any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the 
right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  new  govern- 
ment, laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its  powers 
in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and 
happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that  governments  long  estab- 
lished, should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes  ;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, all  experience  hath  shown,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to 
suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing 
the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But,  when  a  long  train  of 
abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a 
design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is 
their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for 
their  future  security.  —  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these 
colonies  ;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter 
their  former  systems  of  government.  The  history  of  the  present  king 
of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  hav- 

1 


THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE 

ing  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these 
States.     To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary 
for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing 
importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent  should  be 
obtained  ;  and,  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to 
them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  dis- 
tricts of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  repre- 
sentation in  the  legislature,  a  right  inestimable  to  them  and  formidable 
to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfort- 
able, and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with 
manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others 
to  be  elected ;  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation, 
have  returned  to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise  ;  the  State  remain- 
ing, in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasion  from  with- 
out, and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States  ;  for  that 
purpose  obstructing  the  laws  for  naturalization  of  foreigners  ;  refusing  to 
pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions 
of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent 
to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of  their 
offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of 
officers  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without  the 
consent  of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior  to, 
the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined,  with  others,  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign 
to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws ;  giving  his  assent 
to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us  : 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  mur- 
ders which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States : 

2 


THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world : 
For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent: 
For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury: 
For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offenses: 
For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  prov- 
ince, establishing  therein   an   arbitrary   government    and    enlarging   its 
boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  lit  instrument  Cor 
introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies: 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and 
altering,  fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments : 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  ■ 
with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  protec- 
tion, and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and 
destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries 
to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny,  already  begun, 
with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most 
barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas, 
to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their 
friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and  has  endeavored 
to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the  merciless  Indian  savages, 
whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages, 
sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions,  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in 
the  most  humble  terms :  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only 
by  repeated  injury.  A  prince,  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every 
act  which  may  define  a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British  brethren.  We 
have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to 
extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them 
of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have 
appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured 
them,  by  the  ties  of 'our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these  usurpations, 
which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and  correspondence. 
They  too  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  consanguinity.  Vf  d 
must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  separa- 
tion, and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in 
peace  friends. 

3 


THE   DECLARATION   OE    INDEPENDENCE 

We.  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
general  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world 
for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name,  and  by  authority  of 
the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  That 
these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent 
States;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown, 
and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved  ;  and  that,  as  free  and  inde- 
pendent States,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  con- 
tract alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things 
which  independent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the  support  of  this 
declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence, 
we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred 
honor.  John  Hancock. 


Neiv  Hampshire 
Josiah  Bartlett, 
Wm.  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

Massachusetts  Bay 
Saml.  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robt.  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

Bhode  Island 
Step.  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery^ 

Connecticut 
Roger  Sherman, 
Sam'el  Huntington, 
Wm.  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

New  York 
Wm.  Eloyd, 
Phil.  Livingston, 
Frans.  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


New  Jersey 
Richd.  Stockton, 
Jno.  Witherspoon, 
Eras.  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abra.  Clark. 

Pennsylvania 

Robt.  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benja.  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
Geo.  Clymer, 
Jas.  Smith, 
Geo.  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
Geo.  Ross. 

Delaware 
Caesar  Rodney, 
Geo.  Read, 
Tho.  M'Kean. 

Maryland 

Samuel  Chase, 
Wm.  Paca, 
Thos.  Stone, 
4 


Charles  Carroll  of  Car- 
rollton. 

Virginia 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Th  Jefferson, 
Benja.  Harrison, 
Thos.  Nelson,  jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 

North  Carolina 
Wm.  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

South  Carolina 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thos.  Heyward,  Junr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Junr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

Georgia 
Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
Geo.  Walton. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES— 17871 


We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  com- 
mon defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of 

liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Con- 
stitution for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE   I 

Section  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in 
a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives. 

Section  2.  1  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States, 
and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for 
electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

2  No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  eitizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term 
of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  per- 
sons.3 The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after 
the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every 
subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct. 
The  number  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty 
thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative  ;  and  until 
such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be 
entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Provi- 
dence Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  t'<  >ur, 
Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North 
Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the 
executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and  other 
officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  3.  1  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of 
two  senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof  for  six 
years  ;  and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

1  This  reprint  of  the  Constitution  exactly  follows  the  text  of  that  in  the 
Department  of  State  at  Washington,  save  in  the  spelling  of  a  few  words. 

2  The  last  half  of  this  sentence  was  superseded  by  the  13th  and  14th  Amend- 
ments.    (See  p.  lb  following.) 

5 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

2  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at 
the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of 
the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year, 
so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if  vacancies 
happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature 
of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments 
until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such 
vacancies. 

3  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

4  The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president  pro 
tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall 
preside :  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two 
thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of 
honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States :  but  the  party  convicted 
shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and 
punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  4.  1  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for 
senators  and  representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the 
legislature  thereof ;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or 
alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

2  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by 
law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  5.  1  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns 
and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  to  do  business  ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from 
day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent 
members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may 
provide. 

2  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds, 
expel  a  member. 

3  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment 
require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  House 
on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be 
entered  on  the  journal. 

4  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other 
place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

6 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE    UNITED   STATES 

Section  6.  1  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  com- 
pensation for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the 
Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their 
attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same  ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  House, 
they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  be 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof 
shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any 
office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during 
his  continuance  in  office. 

Section  7.  1  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with 
amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

2  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States ;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall 
return  it,  with  his  objections  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  origi- 
nated, who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed 
to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  House 
shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections, 
to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if 
approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all 
such  cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays, 
and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  en- 
tered on  the  journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be 
returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it 
shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner 
as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent 
its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  ques- 
tion of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him, 
or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  pre- 
scribed in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  8.  1  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect 
taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States  ;  but  all  duties, 
imposts  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States ; 

2  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

3  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

4  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on 
the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 

5  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures  ; 

6  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

7  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads  ; 

7 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

8  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respec- 
tive writings  and  discoveries ; 

9  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10  To  detine  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

11  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  ; 

12  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that 
use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years  ; 

13  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

14  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces ; 

15  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections  and  repel  invasions ; 

16  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and 
for  governing  such  part  of  them. as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the 
officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  disci- 
pline prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,1  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  pur- 
chased by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and 
other  needful  buildings  ;  and 

18  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department 
or  officer  thereof. 

Section  9.  1  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any 
of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro- 
hibited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceed- 
ing ten  dollars  for  each  person.2 

2  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  re- 
quire it. 

3  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  reve- 
nue to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another :  nor  shall  vessels 
bound  to,  or  from,  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in 
another. 

7  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the 

1  The  District  of  Columbia,  which  comes  under  these  regulations,  had  not 
then  been  erected. 

2  A  temporary  clause,  no  longer  in  force.  See  also  Article  V,  p.  12  following. 

8 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time 
to  time. 

8  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States:  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  protit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title, 
of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Section  10. x  1  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  con- 
federation ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  ;  coin  money  ;  emit  bills 
of  credit ;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of 
debts ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary 
for  executing  its  inspection  laws :  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and 
imposts  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to 
the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of 
tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as 
will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE   II 

Section  1.  1  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of 
four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected,  as  follows 

2  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators 
and  representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress : 
but  no  senator  or  representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or 
profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  per- 
sons voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which  list  they  shall 
sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of  the 
>  Senate,  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  there  be 
more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of 
votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by 
ballot  one  of  them  for  President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  house  shall  in  like  manner  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken 
by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum 
for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

1  See  also  the  10th,  13th,  14th,  and  loth  Amendments,  pp.  15,  16  following. 

9 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice  President.  But 
if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate 
shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice  President.1 

3  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and 
the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes  ;  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

4  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty -five  years,  and  been  four- 
teen years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

5  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said 
office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the  Congress 
may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  ina- 
bility, both  of  the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring  what  officer 
shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until 
the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

6  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  com- 
pensation, which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the 
period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any 
of  them. 

7  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  fol- 
lowing oath  or  affirmation :  —  "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I 
will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States." 

Section  2.  1  The  President  shall  be  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States ;  he  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the 
executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their 
respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons 
for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  senators  present  con- 
cur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States, 
whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which 
shall  be  established  by  law :  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the 
appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  Presi- 
dent alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which 
shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  infor- 
mation of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration 
such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on 

1  This  paragraph  superseded  by  the  12th  Amendment,  p.  15  following. 

10 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in 
case  of  disagreement  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjourn- 
ment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time,  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he 
shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public,  ministers;  he  shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers 
of  the  United  States. 

Section  4.  The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  con- 
viction of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE   III 

Section  1.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested 
in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme 
and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and 
shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services,  a  compensation  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  2.  1  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and 
equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority; — to 
all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls  ;  — 
to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  —  to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party  ;  — to  controversies  between  two 
or  more  States;  —  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State  ; l  —  be- 
tween citizens  of  different  States,  —  between  citizens  of  the  same  State 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or 
the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens  or  subjects. 

2  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  con- 
suls, and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact, 
with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall 
make. 

3  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 
jury  ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall 
have  been  committed  ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the 
trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have 
directed. 

Section  3.  1  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall  consist  only  in 
levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in 
open  court. 

2  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason, 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE   IV 

Section  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.     And 

1  See  the  l'lth  Amendment,  p.  15  following. 
11 


CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts,  records  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  2.  1  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privi- 
leges and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on  de- 
mand of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be 
delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regu- 
lation therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be 
delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may 
be  due.1 

Section  3.  1  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this 
Union  ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  any  other  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures 
of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful 
rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging 
to  the  United  States  ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular 
State. 

Section  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion ;  and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  execu- 
tive (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE   V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall 
call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall 
be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when 
ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by 
conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  or^e  or  the  other  mode  of 
ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  ;  Provided  that  no  amend- 
ment which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the 
ninth  section  of  the  first  article  ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent, 
shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE   VI 

1  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States 
under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof ;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in 
the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

1  See  the  13th  Amendment,  p.  16  following. 
12 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


3  The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers, 
both  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by 
oath  or  affirmation  to  support,  this  Constitution;  but  no  religious  test 
shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  ollice  or  public  trust  under 
the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   VII 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for 
the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the 
same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present  the 
seventeenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto 
subscribed  our  names, 

Go:  Washington  — 

Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia 


New  Hampshire 

John  Langdon 
Nicholas  Gilman 

Massachusetts 

Nathaniel  Gorham 
Rufus  King 

Connecticut 

Wm.  Saml.  Johnson 
Roger  Sherman 

New  York 
Alexander  Hamilton 

New  Jersey 

Wil :  Livingston 
David  Brearley 
Wm.  Paterson 
Jona:  Dayton 

Pennsylvania 

B.  Franklin 
Thomas  Mifflin 
Robt.  Morris 
Geo.  Clymer 
Thos.  Fitzsimons 
Jared  Ingersoll 
James  Wilson 
Gouv  Morris 


Attest 


Delaware 

Geo :  Read 

Gunning  Bedford  Jun 
John  Dickinson 
Richard  Bassett 
Jaco:  Broom 

Maryland 

James  McHenry 

Dan  of  St.  Thos  Jenifer 

Danl.  Carroll 

Virginia 

John  Blair  — 
James  Madison  Jr. 

North  Carolina 

Wm.  Blount 

Richd.  Dobbs  Spaight 

Hu  Williamson 

South  Carolina 

J.  Rutledge, 

Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney 

Charles  Pinckney 

Pierce  Butler. 

Georgia 

William  Few 
Abr  Baldwin 
William  Jackson  Secretary. 


13 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Articles  in  addition  to,  and  amendment  of,  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  proposed  by  Congress,  and  ratified  by  the  legisla- 
tures of  the  several  States  pursuant  to  the  fifth  article  of  the  original 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE    Ii 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE   II 

A  well  regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE   III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

ARTICLE   IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  vio- 
lated, and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by 
oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE   V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual 
service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject 
for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb  ;  nor  shall 
be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be 
deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE   VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have 
been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and 
cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ; 
to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to 
have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE   VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

1  The  first  ten  Amendments  were  adopted  iu  17UL 
14 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE    UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE   VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  lines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE    IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE    X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor 
prohibited  bv  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 

the',COple-  ARTICLE   XI> 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of 
any  foreign  State.  ARTICLE  XII  > 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves  ;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 
voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  per- 
sons voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President, 
and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate; — The  president  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted ;  —  The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President, 
if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ; 
and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the 
highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as 
President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by 
ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be 
taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two 
thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a 
President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before 
the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice  President  shall  act 
as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability 
of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as 
Vice  President  shall  be  the  Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a 
majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice  President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally 
ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 

i  Adopted  in  1798.  2  Adopted  in  1804. 

15 


CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE   XIII  i 

Section  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  ap- 
propriate legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV2 

Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States  ;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law  ;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdic- 
tion the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number 
of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right 
to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice 
President  of  the  United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive 
and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  legislature  thereof, 
is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged, 
except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representa- 
tion therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such 
male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress, 
or  elector  of  President  and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  mili- 
tary, under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously 
taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United 
States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judi- 
cial officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given 
aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of 
two  thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  author- 
ized by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties 
for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned. 
But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt 
or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ; 
but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE   XV  s 

Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall 
not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

1  Adopted  in  1805.  2  Adopted  in  1868.  3  Adopted  in  1870. 

16 


INDEX 


Diacritic  marks  :  a  as  in  late  ;  a  as  in  fat ;  a  as  \\\  far  ;  a  as  in  what ;  aw  as  in  saw  ; 
e  as  in  me  ;  e  as  in  vie t,  berry  ;  e  as  in  her  ;  e  as  in  veil ;  g  as  in  gem  ;  %  as  in  go  ;  \  as 
in  mine  ;  I  as  in  tin  ;  i  as  in  police  ;  5  as  in  note  ;  6  as  in  not ;  oo  as  in  fool ;  s  as  in  news  ; 
u  as  in  tune  ;  u  as  in  nut ;  u  as  in  bush  ;  y  as  in  city.     Italic  letters  are  silent. 


Ad'ams,  John,  26,  115,  120. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  175. 

Adams,  Samuel,  20-30,  31,  32. 

Al-a-ba'ma,  warship,  295,  296,  303. 

Alabama  Claims,  303. 

A-las'ka,  purchase  of,  303. 

Albany  (awl'ba-ny),  and  Erie  Canal,  222. 

Al'be-tnarle,  ship,  296. 

Al-ex-an'dri-a,  Lee  at,  274. 

Al-le-g^e'ny  Mountains,  140. 

Allegheny  River,  47. 

Al'len,  E'than,  56. 

An'der-son-ville,  299. 

An-nap'o-lis,  no. 

An-t/e'tam,  battle  of,  254,  281. 

Ap-po-mat'tox  Court   House,  surrender 

at,  255,  270,  286. 
Ar'ling-ton,  Lee  at,  275. 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  279,  266. 
Army  of  Virginia,  278,  279. 
Ar'nold,  Ben'e-dict,  82,  84-85,  67-68. 
Articles  of  Confederation,  111-113. 
Ash'land,  181. 
At-lan'ta,  captured  by  Sherman,  267. 

Bar'clay,  Captain,  153,  155. 

Bar'ton,  Clara,  299-301. 

Bell,  Alexander  Gra'/zam,  315. 

Bel'voir,  42. 

Be'mis  Heights,  battles  of,  84-85. 

Ben'ning-ton,  battle  of,  78-79. 

Black  Hawk  War,  239. 

Bon     Homme     Richard     (bo-nom'     re- 

shar'),  107-109. 
Boon*?,  Daniel,  141-147. 


Boon^s/bor-oa^/fc,  145,  147. 

Boston,   "Massacre,"   23;    "tea   party," 

24-26;   siege  of,  34-36,  55,  56. 
Brad'dock,  General,  48,  49. 
Bran'dy-wine  Creek,  65. 
Brown,  John,  245,  276,  277. 
Buck'ner,  General,  264. 
Buf'fa-lo,  and  Erie  Canal,  222. 
Bull  Run,  battle  of,  252;    second  battle 

of,  254. 
Bunk'er  Hill,  battle  of,  34-37,  54. 
Bur-goyn^',  General,  64,  74-79,  83-87. 
Burn'side,  General,  281. 
Burr,  Aaron,  138. 
But'ler,  General,  292. 

Cab'i-net,  First,  116. 
Cable,  telegraph,  314,  315. 
Calhoun  (cal-hoon'),  John  C,  197,  199. 
Cal-i-for'ni-a,  187,  189. 
Cam'bridge,  54. 
Cam'den,  battle  of,  91. 
Can'a-da,  9. 

Cape  Bret'on  fisheries,  106. 
Car-neg'te,  Andrew,  330-335. 
Ca-vi"te,  battle  of,  325-328. 
Ce'dar  Creek',  battle  of,  269. 
Chads  Ford,  battle  of,  65. 
Chan'cel-lors-ville,  battle  of,  281. 
Charlifs'ton,  91. 

Charlottesville   (shar'lots-vil),  117;  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia  at,  123. 
Chat7/am,  228. 
Chat-ta-noo'ga,  264,  266. 
Che-raw',  94. 


17 


INDEX 


Circuit  riding,  242. 

Cities,  growth  of,  305. 

Civil  Rights  Bill,  303. 

Civil    War,    251-256,    262-270,    277-286, 
291-299. 

Clark,  George  Rog'ers,  113. 

Clark,  William,  126. 

Clay,  Henry,  178-190. 

Cler'mont,  216-218. 

Clin'ton,  De  Witt,  220-222. 

Clinton,  General  Henry,  67,  91. 

Colonies,  9. 

Committees  of  Correspondence,  22,  24- 
27. 

Compromise  of  1820,  185. 

Compromise  of  1850,  189,  202,  245,  246. 

Concord  (kong'kerd),  battle  of,  33-34. 

Con-es-t5'ga  wagons,  183. 

Confederate  states,  250,  277. 

Constitution,  115,  135. 

Constitution,  frigate,  160. 

Continental    Congress,    16,    27,   54,   56, 

111-113. 
Continental  currency,  134. 
Corn-wal'lis,  58,  61,  63,  69,  91,  93-95. 
Cotton  gin,'  185,  207-209. 
Cow'pens,  battle  of,  95. 
Cra/'gte  homestead,  55. 
Creek  War,  171-172. 
Critical  period,  111-115. 
Crown  Point  captured,  56. 
Cru'ger,  Nicholas,  130. 
Cu'ba,  323-324,  328. 
Cul'pep-er  County,  43. 
Cum'ber-land  Gap,  144. 
Cumberland  Road,  184. 
Cush'ing,  Lieutenant,  296,  297. 
Cus'tis,  Martha,  50,  52. 
Custis,  Mary  Randolph,  275. 

Dart'm<?uth  College,  195. 

Da'vy,  Humphry,  224. 

Dear'born,  General,  150,  151. 

De-ca'tur,  156,  157. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  120-122. 

De  Kalb',  Baron,  163. 

Dent,  Julia,  261. 


Dew'ey,  George,  324-328. 

Dick'in-son,  Charles,  170. 

Dix,  Dorothy,  298. 

Doug'las,  Stephen  A.,  245,  247-248. 

Dred  Scott  decision,  246. 

Dun-ferm'lin^,  330,  335. 

Early  (er'ly),  General  Jubal,  268. 

Ed'i-son,  Thomas  A.,  317-321. 

Electric  light,  320. 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  254,  302. 

Em'er-son,  34. 

England,  War  of  Revolution,  9-109 ;  WTar 

of  1812  with,  149-160. 
Era  of  good  feeling,  182. 
Er'ics-son,  John,  254. 
E'rie  Canal,  219-223. 
Ex'e-ter,  N.H.,  194. 

Fair'fax,  Lord,  42. 

Fair  Oaks,  battle  of,  280. 

Fan'euil  Hall,  23. 

Far'ra-gut,  David  Glasgow,  288-294. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  314. 

Fifteenth  Amendment,  303. 

Flag,  81,  105. 

Flam'bor-o&if^  Head,  Jones  at,  108. 

Flor'i-da,  purchase  of,  174. 

Foote,  263. 

Fore'man,  Judge,  219. 

Fort  DQn'el-son,  263. 

Fort  Duquesne  (du-kan'),  47-49. 

Fort  Henry,  263. 

Fort  Le  fcoeui,  45. 

Fort  Lee,  61. 

Fort  Mimms,  171. 

Fort  Necessity,  48. 

Fort  Schuyler  (skl'ler),  79. 

Fort  Stan'wix,  79-82. 

Fort  Sum'ter,  251,  277. 

Fort  Wash'ing-ton,  61. 

Fourteenth  Amendment,  303. 

France,  ally  of  America,  107. 

Frank'lin,  N.H.,  191. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  107,  114,  120,  124 

Fraunce's  tavern,  71. 

Fred'er-icks-burg,  38  ;  battle  of,  281. 


18 


INDEX 


Free'man's  farm,  battles  of,  84,  85. 
Free  Soil'ers,  247. 
French  and  Indian  War,  9,  44-49. 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  246. 
Fyl'ton,  Robert,  213-218. 

Gag?,  General,  26,  31,  36. 

Ga-le'na,  Grant  at,  262. 

Gates,  General,  83-86,  91. 

Ged'des,  James,  220. 

Gen-e-see'  turnpike,  219. 

Ge-ne'va  Award,  303. 

George  III,  9,  10,  119. 

Ger'man-town,  battle  of,  65. 

Get'tys-burg,  battle  of,  255,  283,  284. 

G//ent,  treaty  of,  173. 

Gist,  Christopher,  45,  46,  47. 

Gold,  discovery  of,  187. 

Golden  Hill,  battle  of,  130. 

Gore,  Christopher,  196. 

Go-wa'nus  Bay,  57. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  258-273. 

Gra.s.5^,  Count  de,  69. 

Great  Meadows,  47. 

Green*?,  Na-than'a-el,  89-97. 

Green'way  Court,  43. 

GtfU'ford  Court  House,  battle  of,  95. 

Hale,  Nathan,  98-102. 

Ham'il-ton,  Alexander,  124,  129-139. 

Hamp'ton  Roads,  254. 

Han'cock,  John,  26,  31,  32,  122. 

Hanks,  Nancy,  231. 

Han'o-ver,  N.H.,  195. 

Har'lem  Heights,  battle  of,  59. 

Har'pers  Fer'ry,  276,  277. 

Har'ri-son,  William  Henry,  151. 

Hayn<?,  Senator,  199. 

Henry,  Patrick,  13-19,  118,  119. 

Her'ki-mer,  General,  79-80. 

Her'mit-age,  174. 

Hern'don,  William  H.,  242. 

Hoe,  Richard  M.,  321. 

Hook'er,  General,  282. 

Hop'kins,  Commodore,  104. 

House  of  Burgesses,  13. 

How*,  E-U'as,  210-212. 


Howe,  General,  in  Revolution,  57-61,  64, 

65,  67,  83. 
Hull,  General,  150,  151. 
Hutch'in-son,  Governor,  22,  23. 

Immigration,  305. 
In-di-an-ap'o-lis,  184. 
Indians,  and  Boone,  143-147. 
Inventions,  205-218,  224-228,  306-321. 
Ir-o-quob'  Indians,  74. 

Jack'son,  Andrew,  168-177. 
Jackson,  General  T.  J.,  280-282. 
Ja-mai'ca,  58. 
Jay,  John,  114,  116,  135. 
Jef'fer-son,  Thomas,  1 17-128. 
John'son,  Sarah,  234. 
John'ston,  Albert  Sidney,  264. 
Johnston,  General  Joseph  E.,  280. 
Jones,  John  Paul,  103-110. 

Kan'sas,  245,  246. 

Kear' surge,  warship,  295,  296. 

Ken-tuck'y,  142-147. 

Kings  Mountain,  battle  of,  91. 

Knox,  Henry,  116. 

La-fa-yetfe',  64,  69,  162-167. 

Lake  Champlain  (sham-plan'),  battle  on, 

Lake  E'rie,  battle  on,  153-155. 
Law'rence,  Captain,  154. 
Lee,  General  Charles,  67. 
Lee,  Major  Henry,  93,  96. 
Lee,  Robert  E.,  274-287 ;    at  Appomat- 
tox, 270,  286. 
Le/th,  Jones  at,  107. 
Lew'is,  Mer'i-weth-er,  126. 
Lex'ing-ton,  battle  of,  32. 
Lexington,  Kentucky,  180. 
Light,  artificial,  317,  320. 
Lin'co/n,  Abraham,  230-257. 
Lincoln-Douglas  debates,  247. 
Liv'er-more,  Mary,  298. 
Liv'ing-ston,  Robert  R.,  120. 
Long  Island,  battle  of,  57-5^. 
Lou-T-^I-Sn'a  (loo-),  purchase  of,  125. 


19 


INDEX 


McClel'lan,  General,  254,  280,  281. 

McCor'mick,  Cyrus  Hall,  306-308. 

McCr^a,  Jane,  78. 

McKin'ley,  President,  324. 

Mad'i-son,  James,  135. 

Maine,  battleship,  323. 

Mal'vern  Hill,  281. 

Ma-nas'sas,  battle  of,  2S1. 

Ma-nil'a  Bay,  battle  of,  325-328. 

Mar-co'ni,  316. 

Mare  Island  navy  yard,  291. 

Mar'i-on,  the  Swamp  Fox,  69. 

Marsh'field,  Webster  at,  202. 

Mayn?,  Rev.  James,  40. 

Mer'ri-mac  and  Monitor,  253,  294,  295. 

Mex'i-co,  war  with,  187,  260,  261. 

Mint,  137. 

Min'ute-men,  27. 

Mis-sis-sip'pi  River,  in  Civil  War,  264, 

291,  292. 
Missouri  (mi-soo'n),  185. 
Missouri  Compromise,  245. 
Mo-buV,  in  War  of  1812,  172. 
Mobile  Bay,  battle  of,  293,  294. 
Molasses  Act,  10. 
Mon'i-tor     and     Merrimac,     253,    294, 

295- 
Mon'm<?uth,  battle  of,  67,  163. 
Mo-non-ga-he'la  River,  47. 
Mon-te-rey',  battle  of,  260. 
Mon-ti-cel'lo,  118-119,  127. 
Mor'gan,  General,  94-96. 
Mor'ris,  Robert,  63. 
Mors*?,  Samuel  Finley  Breese,  309-316. 
Mount  McGreg'or,  Grant  at,  272. 
Mount  Vernon,  42,  44,  49,  52. 

Na-po'le-on,  and  Louisiana,  125. 

Nas'sau,  capture  of,  105. 

Navy,  in  Revolution,  103-109;  in  War 
of  1812,  153-160. 

Nev'is,  Hamilton  at,  129. 

New  Or'le-ans,  battle  of,  173;  in  Civil 
War,  291-292. 

New  York,  in  Revolution,  57-61 ;  capi- 
tal, 135 ;   western  trade  of,  219,  222. 

Nor'fo/k,  Farragut  at,  291. 


Northwest  Territory,  114,  185. 
Nueces  (nwa'ses)  River,  187. 

O-hi'o,  growth  of,  182. 
Old  Hickory,  174. 
O-n/i'das,  74. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  114. 
Or'e-gon  Country,  126. 
O-ris'ka  ny,  battle  of,  80-81. 
O'tis,  James,  10-12,  22. 

Pain*?,  Thomas,  113. 
Pa'lo  Al'to,  battle  of,  260. 
Paper  money,  134. 
Par'lia-ment,  11. 
Pen-in'su-lar  Campaign,  280. 
Pen-sa-co'la,  172. 
Per'ry,  Oliver  Hazard,  152-156. 
Pe'ters-burg,  siege  of,  285. 
Phil-a-del'phi-a,  in   Revolution,  65,   66; 
Convention,  114;  western  trade  of,  219. 
Phil'ip-pin^s,  324-328. 
Phonograph,  320. 
Pick'ett,  General,  283,  284. 
Pit'cairn,  Major,  31-33. 
Pitts'burg,  49 ;  Carnegie  in,  331. 
Pittsburg  Landing,  battle  of,  264. 
Platts'burg,  battle  of,  158-160. 
Por'ter,  Captain  David,  289,  294. 
Porto  Ri'co,  328. 

Ports' mouth,  N.H.,  Webster  at,  196. 
Po-t5'mac  River,  280. 
Prairie  schooners,  183. 
Presque  Isle  (presk  el'),  45. 
Prince'ton,  battle  of,  63. 
Put-in-Bay,  battle  of,  154-155. 
Put'nam,  General,  75. 

Queens'town,  battle  of,  151. 

Railroads,  223-228,  305. 
Ran'dolph,  Edmund,  116. 
Rap-i-dan'  River,  267,  284. 
Rap-pa-han'nock  River,  38. 
Reaper,  306. 

Red  Cross  Society,  300-301. 
Red  Jacket,  166. 


20 


INDEX 


Republican  party,  247. 

Re-vere',  Paul,  31,  32. 

Revolution,  causes  of,  9-28  ;   War  of,  31- 

36, 54-109,  109-170. 
Rich'mond,  siege  of,  268,  269,  285,  286, 

253- 
Ri'o  Gran'de,  187. 

Rochambeau  (ro-shang-bo'),  Count,  152. 
Roch'es-ter,  and  Erie  Canal,  222. 
Roo'se-velt,  159-160,  256. 

St.  Leg'er,  64,  74,  79-83. 

St.  Louis  (loo'is),  Grant  at,  260-262. 

Salisbury  (sawlz'ber-i) ,  N.H.,  191,  192. 

San'ga-mon  River,  238. 

Sanitary  Commission,  298. 

SSr'a-nac  River,  157. 

Sar-a-to'ga,  surrender  at,  65,  85. 

Sa-van'nah,  in  Revolution,  91 ;  taken  by 

Sherman,  267. 
Schenectady  (ske-nec'ta-dy),  227. 
Schenectady  boats,  183. 
Schuyler  (ski'ler),  Philip,  76-83,  86-87. 
Schuylkill  (skool'kilj  River,  65. 
Scotch-Irish,  140. 
Se-ra'pis,  107-109. 
Seven  Days'  Battles,  281. 
Sewing  machine,  209-212. 
Sharps'burg,  battle  of,  254,  281. 
Shen-an-do'ah  Valley,  42 ;  in  Civil  War, 

268,  269,  280. 
Sher'i-dan,  General,  268,  269. 
Sher'man,  General,  266-267. 
Sherman,  Roger,  120. 
Shi'loh,  battle  of,  264. 
Signaling,  309. 
Slavery,  184-189,  202,   244-249;   ended, 

254.  302. 
Sons  of  Liberty,  130,  132. 
South,  the,  249 ;  see  Civil  War. 
South   Carolina,  and   nullification,   176, 

185 ;  secession  of,  250. 
Spain,  war  with,  324-328. 
Spoils  System,  176. 
Spot  Resolutions,  244. 
Spring'field,  Lincoln  at,  241. 
Stamp  Act,  11,  14-16. 


Stamp  Act  Congress,  2T. 

Stark,  John,  78-79. 

Stars  and  Stripes,  81. 

Steamboat,  216-218. 

Steel  making,  333-334. 

Stephenson  (ste'ven-sun),  George,  223- 

227. 
Steu'ben,  Baron,  66.     . 
Still'wa-ter,  battles  of,  84,  85. 
Stu'art,  General  J.  E.  B.,  280. 
SyVa-cuse,  and  Erie  Canal,  222. 

Tariff,  176,  182,  185,  198. 

tax,  24-26. 
Telegraph,  309-316. 
Telephone,  315. 
Terre  Haute  (ter'e-hof) ,  184. 
Tex 'as,  260. 

Thirteenth  Amendment,  302. 
Ti-con-der-o'ga,  56,  75-76. 
Todd,  Mary,  243. 
Tories,  74,  132. 
Tren'ton,  battle  of,  62. 
Trip'o-11,  157. 

Valley  Forge,  65,  66. 
Val-pa-rai'so,  the  Essex  at,  290. 
Van  Braam',  Jacob,  45. 
Van  Ren^'se-ker,  General,  150,  151. 
Ve-nan'go,  45. 

Vicks'burg,  capture  of,  253,  255,  264-266. 
Vir-gin'i-a,  in  Revolution,  14-18;  Jeffer- 
son and,  122,  123. 


21 


Wal'la-bout  Bay,  57. 

War  of  1812,  149-160,  181,  289-290. 

Wash'ing-ton,  City  of,  160. 

Washington,  George,  38-72,  98;  and 
Lafayette,  163;  in  Constitutional  Con- 
vention, 114. 

Washington,  Colonel  William,  93,  95,  96. 

Washington  and  Lee  University,  286. 

Wa-tau'ga  River,  142. 
j  Web'ster,  Daniel*  191-204. 

Wee-haw'ken,  139. 

West,  growth  of,  182. 

West  Point  Military  Academy,  259. 


INDEX 


White-ha'ven,  Jones  &.t,  107. 
White  Plains,  battle  of,  61. 
Whit'ney,  Eli,  205-209. 
Wilderness,  battles  of  the,  268,  285. 
Wil'liams-burg,  13;  Jefferson  at,  117. 
Wil'ming-ton,  95. 
Wil'mot  Proviso,  244. 


Wins'lov,  Captain,  295. 
Wor'den,  Lieutenant,  294,  295. 
Wright,  Silas,  312. 
Writs  of  Assistance,  10,  II. 
Wyth<?,  George,  179. 

York'town  campaign,  69-70,  164. 


22 


8S& 


